Please note that:
1000g = 1kg
1000mg = 1g
1000ug = 1mg
1g is a gram. It can also be written as one gramme.
1ug is a microgram. It can also be written as a microgramme. It is abbreviated to 'u' for simplicity, but the actual character is not strictly alphabetical and has a 'tail' on the left hand side of the 'u'.
1 U (or iu) is 1 International Unit. This is the amount of a substance that has an agreed biological effect. Since each substance is different and has different properties and effects, the conversion factor to get from U to ug will vary per sustance. There is no hard and fast rule. It is best to consult the manufacturer's own unit conversion.
back to top
Vitamins A, C & E:
People suffering from CFS or related conditions frequently are suffering from oxidative and free radical damage as a result of years of intrusion by foreign organisms, environmental toxification, heavy metals and toxins from fried foods etc. Antioxidant supplementation in such individuals is critical. Antioxidants include Selenium and Vitamins A, C and E. Antioxidants are also present in a variety of green leafy foods and algae.
It may not recommended to take more than the recommended daily dosage of Vitamin A (in the form of pre-formed Retinyl Palmitate), as it may cause osteoporosis over a number of years. This does not appear to be an issue with Beta-Carotene which is converted into (retinol) Vitamin A by the body as and when it is required (a provitamin). Too high a daily dosage of Beta-Carotene can make one's skin go orange after a while. This is the body's way of storing it. If this happens then simply reduce the dosage and normal colouration will return!)
Chris Masterjohn argues that high levels of Vitamin A intake are fine as long as it is taken in a natural form (i.e. Cod Liver Oil) and not a synthesized form, as in the former sources it is balanced Vitamin D and K.
www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Benefit-Of-Cod-Liver-Oil.html
Dr Jospeh Mercola warns of excessive Vitamin A levels in many commercial Cod Liver Oil supplements, with many having vitamin A and D actually added to them, on top of their naturally occurring amounts. Mercola believes that vitamin A deficiency is still a problem in developing countries, whereas in developed countries, it is much more uncommon and vitamin A toxicity is much more commonplace. To quote a cliche, always read the label!
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2008/12/23/important-cod-liver-oil-update.aspx
Much higher amounts of C and E can be safely taken. Vitamin C is water soluble and can be safely taken in high doses. Ester-C is reputed to be a more bio-assimilable, less acidic form of Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C). Natural sources rich in Vitamin C include Acerola berries and cereal grasses (discussed in the Antioxidant section below) and of course to a lesser extent citrus fruit. There is no toxic level of Vitmain C as such, as the body induces diahorrea when it has reached its maximum dosage, which is around 10g per day. Buffered Vitamin C (i.e. Ascorbate salts of usually Potassium, Magnesium and Calcium - with a more neutral pH) can also be used, and half of its weight is roughly the Ascorbate component. Clearly diarrhea will arrive sooner with Buffered Vitamin C because of all the Magnesium. Mega vitamin doses (of A, C and E) should only really be taken for short periods of time, for example during winter months. Vitamin C is however reputed to be a pro-oxidant at high levels which can result in DNA damage. Vitamin C is also a weak chelating agent of heavy metals and high doses in those who have large amounts of heavy metals circulating may result in over-detoxification symptoms. Where you choose to obtain your antioxidants from is your decision. Not all those with related conditions have any oxidant damage, but it is healthy to have a good intake of antioxidants for anti-ageing reasons.
Dr Martin Pall argues that natural sources of Vitamin E are far superior to synthetic sources with respect to scavenging rogue oxidant molecules such as Peroxynitrite. Gamma-tocopherol is one of few biologically active types of 8 different tocopherol found in Vitamin E. Supplementation of one form tends to lower other forms in the body. Thus it is better to supplement a natural source of Vitamin that is rich(er) in the Gamma-Tocopherol to aid rather than inhibit Peroxynitrite scavenging. Natural Tocopherol supplements rich in Gamma-Tocopherol are often known by the name 'Gamma E'.
It should be noted that whilst Vitamin E, as well as being a blood pressure lowering nutrient, also increases the strength of the heart beat. Dosages should be increased slowly as a rapid increase in dosage may temporarily elevate blood pressure. High dosages may increase symptoms of heart palpitations so you may need to find the dosage that works best for you. If one suffers from palpitations at night, whilst in the supine position, then one may elect to take one's dosage of Gamma E in the morning and possibly mid-afternoon only (avoiding the evening). Those who are suffering from Rheumatic Fever or Rheumatic Cardiac Disease (damaged valves in the heart muscle) should avoid dosages of over 100 IU per day. Vitamin E is a powerful peroxynitrite scavenger and NMDA inhibitor, lowering excitotoxicity. It may also help to recycle oxidised Glutathione into reduced Glutathione, as other antioxidants tend to do.
back to top
Vitamin D and UV Light Exposure:
Vitamin D is a fat soluble vitamin. It occurs in two main forms D2 and D3. D2 (ergocalciferol) is derived from plant and fungal sources (in very low concentrations), whereas D3 (cholecalciferol) is found in sufficient quantities in cod liver oil and oily fish. If supplementated, it is best absorbed with oily type foods. D3 is also produced naturally by the human body, by exposure of the skin to UVB radiation, the form that penetrates only the epidermal layers of the skin. Only a specific range of UVB is used by 7-Dehydrocholesterol in Vitamin D synthesis (270-300nm). Please note that UVA is not required and is harmful to human cells. UVB and UVC are also harmful, and penetrate further into the skin, but also have beneficial effects in small exposures.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D
'These wavelengths are present in sunlight when the UV index is greater than 3. At this solar elevation, which occurs daily within the tropics, daily during the spring and summer seasons in temperate regions, and almost never within the arctic circles, adequate amounts of vitamin D3 can be made in the skin after only ten to fifteen minutes of sun exposure at least two times per week to the face, arms, hands, or back without sunscreen. With longer exposure to UVB rays, an equilibrium is achieved in the skin, and the vitamin simply degrades as fast as it is generated'
'Exposure to sunlight for extended periods of time does not cause vitamin D toxicity. This is because within about 20 minutes of ultraviolet exposure in light skinned individuals (3-6 times longer for pigmented skin) the concentration of vitamin D precursors produced in the skin reach an equilibrium, and any further vitamin D that is produced is degraded. Maximum endogenous production with full body exposure to sunlight is 250 µg (10,000 IU) per day.'
'Too little UVB radiation leads to a lack of Vitamin D. Too much UVB radiation leads to direct DNA damages and sunburn. An appropriate amount of UVB (which varies according to skin color) leads to a limited amount of direct DNA damage. This is recognized and repaired by the body. Then the melanin production is increased which leads to a long lasting tan. This tan occurs with a 2 day lag phase after irradiation, but it is much less harmful and long lasting than the one obtained from UVA. However some tanning lotions and sprays available in the market doesn't require UV exposition.'
'Exposure to UVB light, particularly the 310 nm narrowband UVB range, is an effective long-term treatment for many skin conditions like psoriasis, vitiligo, eczema, and others. UVB phototherapy does not require additional medications or topical preparations for the therapeutic benefit; only the light exposure is needed. However, phototherapy can be effective when used in conjunction with certain topical treatments such as anthralin, coal tar, and Vitamin A and D derivatives, or systemic treatments such as methotrexate and soriatane.'
The wavelengths of Ultraviolet (UV) light are cited below.
UVA (long wave or black light): 400 - 315 nm
UVB (medium wave): 315 - 280 nm
UVC (short wave or germicidal): 280 - 100 nm
98.7% of the UV radiation that reaches the ground is UVA, because of the ability of the planet's ozone layer (excluding the 'holes' in it) to absorb UV light, in particular UVB and UVC.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UV
'Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation present in sunlight is an environmental human carcinogen. The toxic effects of UV from natural sunlight and therapeutic artificial lamps are a major concern for human health. The major acute effects of UV irradiation on normal human skin comprise sunburn inflammation erythema, tanning, and local or systemic immunosuppression.'
- Matsumura and Ananthaswamy (2004)
'UVA, UVB and UVC can all damage collagen fibers and thereby accelerate aging of the skin. Both UVA and UVB destroy vitamin A in skin which may cause further damage. In the past UVA was considered less harmful, but today it is known that it can contribute to skin cancer via the indirect DNA damage (free radicals and reactive oxygen species). It penetrates deeply but it does not cause sunburn. UVA does not damage DNA directly like UVB and UVC, but it can generate highly reactive chemical intermediates, such as hydroxyl and oxygen radicals, which in turn can damage DNA. Because it does not cause reddening of the skin (erythema) it cannot be measured in the SPF testing. There is no good clinical measurement of the blocking of UVA radiation, but it is important that sunscreen block both UVA and UVB. Some scientists blame the absence of UVA filters in sunscreens for the higher melanoma-risk that was found for sunscreen users.'
'Some sunscreen lotions now include compounds such as titanium dioxide which helps protect against UVA rays. Other UVA blocking compounds found in sunscreen include zinc oxide and avobenzone. Cantaloupe extract, rich in the compound superoxide dismutase (SOD), can be bound with gliadin (the Gluten extract) to form glisodin, an orally-effective protectant against UVB radiation.'
Some commentators have criticised sunscreen lotion and sun cream manufacturers in their claims that using sun screen can help to prevent skin cancer, or lower one's risk of skin cancer, on the basis that using sun cream actually inhibits the body's own vitamin D production (when wearing the sun tan lotion) and vitamin D deficiency being one of many potential factors in causing cancer or ensuring its rapid spread throughout the body. However, this is a one sided argument, and whilst it may make a valid point about vitamin D production, it does not take into account daily exposure to the light at times when not wearing sun cream or indeed the excessive exposure to UV radiation that would otherwise occur. Whilst this could to some extent be mitigated by antioxidant supplementation, it will not prevent sunburn or premature ageing. However, one might argue that if one knew one was not going to wear sun cream, one would not be on the beach tanning all day. But one should bear in mind that many people are sunburnt whilst out in the sun for short periods of time during the day, rather than sitting in the shade all day, and some exposure is unavoidable, hence sun tan lotion on the nose, face or shoulders being useful on occasion. It does not also take into account dietary factors, and assumes that sunbathers will not have a sufficient dietary intake of cod liver oil or oily fish.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uv_index
'...excessive exposure [to UV] causes sunburn, eye damage such as cataracts, skin aging, and skin cancer. Public-health organizations recommend that people protect themselves (for example, by applying sunscreen to the skin and wearing a hat) when the UV index is 3 or higher;'
The UV index depends largely on the angle of the sun. The highest angle is always at solar noon (not the same as time zone noon). Your local weather forecast or weather web site can provide you with a UV Index rating for your exact geographical location. The Met Office's UV Index forecast map for the UK can be found at the link below.
www.metoffice.gov.uk/weather/uk/uk_forecast_uv.html
General recommendations for precautions according to the UV index are shown at the link below. At UV Index 3, there is 'little risk of harm from unprotected sun exposure' but the general recommendation is to 'Wear sunglasses and use sunscreen, cover the body with clothing and a hat, and seek shade around midday when the sun is most intense.' Skin damage is cumulative over one's life.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uv_index#How_to_use_the_index
Clearly the risk of UV damage and the time it takes for the body to synthesize Vitamin D both depend on the extent of one's skin pigmentation.
http://info.cancerresearchuk.org/healthyliving/sunsmart/knowyourrisk/skintype
www.krippspharmacy.com/WhatsNew.htm#VitaminD
'One survey published in 2001 estimated office- and homebound Canadians and Americans spend 93 per cent of waking time in buildings or cars, both of which block ultraviolet light.'
The UV wavelengths 270-300nm (the shorter end of UVB and the longer end of UVC) are utilised by the 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin to make Vitamin D, with optimum production taking place at 295-297nm. These wavelengths are present in natural, outside light when the UV index is greater than 3.
Joanna Owens, senior science information officer for Cancer Research, has stated that "A little bit of sun goes a long way. The amount of exposure you need to top up your Vitamin D is always less than the amount needed to tan or burn, which increases the risk of skin cancer"
www.krippspharmacy.com/WhatsNew.htm#VitaminD
'One survey published in 2001 estimated office- and homebound Canadians and Americans spend 93 per cent of waking time in buildings or cars, both of which block ultraviolet light.'
As stated above, the body regulates its natural Vitamin D production so it is impossible for the body to produce too much itself. However, it is possible to take too much orally, and Vitamin D is toxic in high dosages.
'The exact long-term safe dose of vitamin D is not entirely known, but dosages up to 250 micrograms (10,000 IU) /day in healthy adults are believed to be safe, and all known cases of vitamin D toxicity with hypercalcemia have involved intake of or over 1,000 micrograms (40,000 IU)/day.'
It is likely this threshold limit is not the same for all individuals and some individuals may well experience signs of toxicity at or slightly below this limit. For example, a friend of mine with a chronically low level of Vitamin D was prescribed 50,000IU of Vitamin D per week, or roughly 7000IU per day. Whilst below the 'safe' limit, this caused huge problems, including intestinal problems and even an inability to defecate properly for 6 months. It is more sensible in extreme cases to start with a slightly lower dosage, perhaps 1000IU per day or so, and build up if necessary. This friend of mine subsequently fared better with a Vitamin D emulsion product (oil in water emulsion with D3 oil dispersed microscopically for better absorption) rather than Vitamin D capsules. This may vary from individual to individual. An example of a Vitamin D emulsion product is Biotics Research Bio-D-Mulsion, containing 400IU of D3 cholecalciferol per drop.
Please see the Hormone and Neurotransmitter page for more discussion regarding sufficient exposure to light.
There is significant evidence that sufficient quantities/availability of Vitamin D can help with proper immune system dysfunction, and conversely, Vitamin D deficiency can result in immune system dysfunction.
www.meresearch.org.uk/research/projects/vitamind.html
Mercola's comments on Vitamin D and Immune System Function
There is also some evidence to suggest that Vitamin D deficiency is more common than we might expect, and that it is linked to a number of disorders and conditions. Vitamin D supplementation is used to help fight cancer.
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2008/12/27/important-vitamin-d-update.aspx
The relationship between vitamin D deficiency, immune system suppression and mycoplasma infections is explored on the Bacterial Overgrowth page.
back to top
B Vitamins - General:
All B-Vitamins are usually very low in those with CFS or related conditions, in particular B6, B7, B9 and B12. B-vitamins in general are very low in our western diets. B-vitamins in general are highly (water) soluble, and levels can therefore drop off very quickly. Years of shortage and inefficient absorption may result in B-vitamin deficiencies of astonomical scale! Vitamins B12, B7 (folic acid) and B6 are required for methylation processes in the body (addition of a carbon atom to a carbon chain), in particular concerned with the production of stomach acid and amino acid conversion.
All B-vitamins are involved in metabolism and a deficiency in any one can result in a variety of biochemical and metabolic problems. In addition, B-vitamins are absorbed enzymatically from the digestive tract, rather than just relying on osmosis, and individuals with CFS often have inadequate number of or inactive enzymes responsible for such absorption for specific B-vitamins; let alone the necessary nutrients and sufficient enzymatic activity for the conversion of the synthetic forms or naturally occurring forms in food into the active, coenzymatic forms of these vitamins required by the cells of the body. Many enzymatic reactions are catalysed by intracellular Magnesium which is often very low in CFS cases. This is why many individuals with CFS, despite taking large quantities of B-vitamins, are not able to effectively absorb them or utilise them.
To understand the importance of B-vitamins, please see the Homocysteine Metabolism and Glutathione production section below, the Iron and Red Blood Cell Production section above, and also the Neurotransmitter (Stress Hormone) Production page and Mitochondrial Function page, as B-vitamins play a vital role in these processes. The importance of sufficient B-vitamins and availability cannot be stated enough in CFS cases.
Paul Cheney argues that it is better to take the vitamin in the form the body actually uses, rather than its precursor, as the body requires energy to convert them, and amino acid and other chemical conversion in the body in a CFS patient is already flawed, i.e. better to take folate rather than folic acid, as the body has to convert folic acid to folate (requiring ATP which is in short supply). This is something that I am in agreement with, particularly for chronic cases, ATP being only one requirement of several for converting a B-vitamin from it's consumed form to its active form, often involving a series of biochemical steps. These additional conversion steps can easily be bypassed with the supplemental B-vitamins at least, rendering them immediately bio-available and ready to take part in essential bodily enzymatic biochemical reactions - in theory.
In 2009, Paul Cheney changed his views on certain B-vitamins, suggesting that active forms of Folic acid and B12 were likely to be 'toxic' to CFS patients as a whole. Clearly this is not entirely the case, but a minority of patients do seem to react badly to even the active forms of certain B-vitamins (if taken daily but not when taken a few days apart when they have a beneficial effect). Whether this is a candida/bad bacteria issue or an oxidative stress and SOD/Glutathione issue is uncertain. The exact cause in such individuals may vary from person to person. One such individual claims not to experience problems with B-vitamins if ingested in natural food-source forms, but does experience problems with B-vitamin supplements, active or non-active forms, and only takes the latter every few days; but strangely does not suffer these effects with synthetic supplements if he had not rested properly during the night. Whether this is an issue with the form of the vitamins or the amounts is not certain. The vast majority of CFS patients however seem to react positively to supplementing those B-vitamins which are low, in a variety of forms (synthetic or food-sourced). More information about Cheney's latest 2009 theories can be seen on the Cardiac Insufficiency page.
back to top
Thiamin (B1):
Vitamin B1, a.k.a. Thiamine, Thiamin or Aneurin, (Thiamin) performs many critical functions in the body and is not infrequently low in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. It contributes to the healthy functioning of the brain, muscles and nervous system. It is essential for energy, carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, and acts as a coenzyme in vital cellular reactions. Most thiamine is serum is bound to proteins, mainly albumin. 90% of thiamine in blood is in Red Blood Cells (RBCs).
B
Thiamine Monophosphate (ThMP) has no known physiological role and is a transport form of Thiamine, and intermediate form of Thiamine.
Thiamine Diphosphate (ThDP, TDP), a.k.a. Thiamine Pyrophosphate (TPP) or Cocarboxylase is created enzymatically from Thiamine by the addition of ATP. ThDP is a coenzyme for several enzymes that catalyse the transfer of two carbon units and dehydrogenation of 2-xoxacids (alpha-keto acids). Several of these enzymes are involved in carbohydrate metabolism, and ATP production, as part of the Krebs cycle. ThDP also helps to remove excess lactic acid (a cause of muscle ache). ThDP is also a prerequisite for the production of one of the biologically active forms of Vitamin B3, NADPH, as well as the pentose sugars deoxyribose and ribose.
Thiamine Triphosphate (ThTP, TTP) is another biologically active form of Thiamine. It is thought to play a part in cell energy metabolism. It is also found in bacteria, fungi and plants as well as animals.
Adenosine Thiamine Triphosphate (AThTP) or thiaminylated ATP is a form of biologically active Thiamine found in E.coli, and to a lesser extent in yeast, roots of higher plants and animal tissue.
Approximately 80% of the Thiamine taken up by cells is phosphorylated and most is bound to proteins. ThMP and free (unphosphoylated) thiamine are present in plasma, milk, cerebrospinal fluid and extracellular fluids. Whilst the highly phosphorylated forms of Thiamine are unable to cross cell membranes, ThMP and free thiamine are. Thiamine and its metabolites are excreted in the urine (as with all other B-vitamins).
Other forms of Thiamine include Allithiamines. These are found naturally occurring in garlic, or more accurately speaking, formed when a garlic bulb is crushed - a disulphide derivative of Thiamine formed through enzymatic activity. Allithiamine was first discovered in Japan in 1951. It is a lipid-soluble form of Thiamine. Thiamine is water soluble, and so a lipid-soluble form can be more easiliy absorbed in cases of severe Thiamine deficiency.
One synthetic form of Allithiamine is Thiamine Tetrahydrofurfurl Disulfide (TTFD), which has many therapeutic uses in medicine, known to promote sulphation and support the immune system, as well as providing antioxidant properties. TTFD is also a mobilising agent for heavy metals, helping to release them from the tissues for excretion from the body. The disulfide group is believed to form a large part of its therapeutic action. TTFD is a useful form of Thiamine supplementation in Thiamine deficient individuals on account of its lipid-soluble properties. TTFD is sometimes referred to as Allithiamine. Please see the TTFD section on the Detoxification Protocols page for more information.
Another synthetic form of Allithiamine is Benfotiamine (S-benzyolthiamine-O-monophosphate or BTMP). According to Doctor's Best, it is fat-soluble and more physiologically active than Thiamin. It raises the blood levels of TPP and stimulates Transkotelease, a cellular enzyme essential for maintenance of normal glucose metabolic pathways.
Uptake of Thiamine is inhibited to some degree by a Folate (B9) deficiency. Thiamine deficiency can also be caused by malnutrition, a thiaminase rich diet (e.g. thermolabile thiaminases in raw freshwater fish, raw shellfish and ferns); by bacterial action (production of thiaminases); and/or excessive consumption of foods high in anti-thiamine factors (tea, coffee and betel nuts) or sulphite (e.g. pork products, wine etc.); but also poor absorption from the digestive tract associated with digestive disorders, chronic diseases, alcoholism and those who frequenly vomit.
Low levels can result in neurodegeneration, wasting and death. Low B1 levels have been observed in freshwater marine animals (e.g. Crocodiles) in disrupted ecosystems where gradual brain damage (brain death) has occurred, resulting in an inability to co-ordinate and control muscular movement, resulting in an inability to swim or move properly, and drowning. Thiamin is described on Wikipedia below.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thiamin
Dietary sources of Thiamine are diverse and usually at low concentrations. foods with significant amounts of Thiamine include oats, flax, brown rice, whole grain rye, asparagus, kale, cauliflower, potatoes, oranges, liver (from beef, pork or chicken) and eggs. Pork meat and yeast (high in glutamate) are particularly rich sources of Thiamine.
As far as supplementation goes, in chronically ill cases, it more efficient to supplement with the biologically active Thiamin Diphosphate (a.k.a. ThDP, TDP, Thiamin Pyrophosphate, TPP or Cocarboxylase) than to use Thiamin. There is nothing to be gained for supplementing with both, and Thiamin requires processing enzymatically and energy before it can be utilised.
back to top
Riboflavin (B2):
The name Riboflavin (E101), a.k.a. Vitamin B2, derives from 'ribose' and 'flavin'. Riboflavin is the central component of the enzymatic cofactors FAD and FMN, and is therefore required by all flavoproteins. Vitamin B2 is required for the metabolism of fats, ketone bodies, carbohydrates and proteins. FAD (as well as B3 as NADPH) is also involved in glutathione reductase production. FAD also reduces GSSG (oxidised form of Glutathione) to GSH (reduced form of Glutathione). B2 is involved in the Krebs Cycle, as a cofactor in Complex I and II. FAD is also involved in converting the amino acid Tryptophan into Niacin (B3). It is also involved in the conversion/synthesis of the coenzymatic forms of the B vitamins B6 (P5P) and B9 (5-MTHF), which are essential to methylation function.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riboflavin
FAD is also involved in the synthesis of Catecholamines (adrenal neurotransmitters), specifically in the oxidation/deamination of the metabolite metanephrine by the enzyme monoamine oxidase (MAO) using FAD as a redox cofactor. FAD is also involved in the formation of VMA, in conjunction with the enzyme Aldehyde dehydrogenase and also iron, molybdenum and vitamin B3 (as NAD+).
Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN), a.k.a. Riboflavin-5'-Phosphate, is a biologically active, coenzyme form of B2. It is a phosphorylated form of Riboflavin. It is a precursor to FAD, the other biologically active form. FMN is the active form of B2 found in specialised supplements. The body manufacturers FMN by adding an ATP molecule to Riboflavin, to profuce FMN and ADP. This energy intensive reaction utilises the enzyme Riboflavin kinase.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flavin_mononucleotide
'[FMN] functions as prosthetic group of various oxidoreductases including NADH dehydrogenase. During catalytic cycle, the reversible interconversion of oxidized (FMN), semiquinone (FMNH.) and reduced (FMNH2) forms occurs. FMN is a stronger oxidizing agent than NAD and is particularly useful because it can take part in both one and two electron transfers. It is the principal form in which riboflavin is found in cells and tissues. It requires more energy to produce, but is more soluble than riboflavin.'
FMN and FAD are cofactors that can carry one or two electrons, which makes them similar to Ubiquinone (Coenzyme Q10).
http://sandwalk.blogspot.com/2007/04/riboflavin-vitamin-b2-fmn-and-fad.html
Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide (FAD) is a redox factor involved in several important reactions in metabolism. It is a combination of flavin and adenosine diphosphate. It can exist in two different redox states, FAD and FADH2. FAD is reduced to FADH2 by accepting two hydrogen atoms (2 Hydrogen ions and 2 electrons). The reduced coenzyme FADH2 is an energy carrying molecule, and can be used as a substrate for oxidative phosphorylation in the mitochondria. FADH2 is oxidised back to FAD, producing enough of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane for the ATP synthase enzyme to produce two units of ATP. The primary sources of reduced FAD are the Krebs cycle and the beta oxidation reaction pathways. In the Krebs cycle, FAD forms part of the succinate dehydrogenase enzyme that oxidises succinate to fumarate, whereas in its beta oxidation role it is a coenzyme in the reaction of acyl CoA dehydrogenase.
The redox reaction between FAD and FADH2 (in simplified form - only showing part of each molecule) can be seen at the link below.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAD
Dietary sources of Riboflavin include milk, yoghurt, cottage cheese, leafy green vegetables, asparagus, bananas, persimmons, okra, chard, liver, kidneys, meat, eggs, fish, legumes (e.g. mature soybeans), yeast (also high in glutamate), mushrooms and almonds. Exposure to light destroys riboflavin.
Excess riboflavin is excreted in the urine. When taken in large oral dosages, it may turn the urine bright yellow (similar to excess beta carotene intake). Because of its yellow or yellow-orange colour, it is sometimes used as a food additive.
With regards to supplementation, Flavin MonoNucleotide (FMN) is the preferred type of B2, as it is biologically active and a precursor for FAD production, the other biologically active form of the vitamin. Riboflavin in itself serves no function, but only as a component of FMN or FAD. By supplementing with FMN it is possible for the body to utilise FMN directly, but also to convert it to FAD as required (saving an additional conversion step from Riboflavin).
back to top
Niacin (B3):
Niacin, a.k.a. nicotinic acid or vitamin B, is a derivative of pyridine with an additional carboxyl group. Nicotinic acid was first discovered in 1873 during studies of the tobacco drug nicotine, where niacin was produced by oxidising nicotine with nitric acid. The name niacin originates from a combination of the words 'nicotinic acid' and 'vitamin'. Niacin deficiency can be caused by severe alcoholism.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin
When administered in high oral dosages, e.g. 1.5-6.0g per day, Niacin can cause a condition known as 'flushing' where the skin may turn red, itch or 'burn'. This toxicological effect is as a byproduct of niacin's conversion to nicotinamide. High dosages of niacin can also cause indigestion, liver toxicity (fulminant hepatic failure - at over 2g per day), hyperglycemia (exaccerbating the effects of diabetes), hyperuricemia (may may exaccerbate the effects of gout). Such effects can be mitigated by taking slow release formulas or simply lowering the dosage.
Niacin has lipid modifying effects. In very high doses, e.g. 1-2g three times a day, can increase HDL cholesterol levels and lower VLDL levels (the precursor to LDL cholesterol). However this effect has resulted in birth defects in laboratory animals, although the effects on humans are not known.
Niacin is manufactured in the body from the amino acid tryptophan, although not in enough quantities for the body's requirements, and hence dietary sources are required.
Food sources of Niacin include liver, heat and kidney, chicken, beef, tuna, salmon, milk, eggs, avocados, dates, tomatoes, leafy vegetables, broccoli, carrots, sweet potatoes, asparagus, nuts, whole grains, legumes, saltbrush seeds, mushrooms and brewer's yeast (also high in glutamate). Breakfast cereals are usually supplemented with Niacin, but also contain sugar and are often not whole-grain.
Niacin can be obtained from protein as stated above, but it is dependent on efficient protein digestion and amino acid conversion in the body.
An alternative form of Niacin is Inositol Hexanicotinate, which is inositol (Vitamin B8) containing six niacin or nicotinic acid (B3) groups. It is marketed as a form of 'flush-free' or 'no flush' niacin, although it does not appear to have the same potency as niacin in terms of its positive (non-vitamin) effects, e.g. lowering LDL cholesterol.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Inositol_hexanicotinate
Nicotinamide is the amide of nicotinic acid (B3). Niacin is the precursor to nicotinamide. The two are identical in their vitamin functions (i.e. subsequent conversion to NAD+, NADP etc.) with niacin requiring one additional step (i.e. conversion to nicotinamide). Nicotinamide also has anti-inflammatory effects. It also prevents immunosuppresion caused by UVA and UVB radiation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide
Nicotinamide lacks the vasodilator, gastrointestinal, hepatic, and hypolipemic actions of nicotinic acid, and hence does not cause flushing. High dosages of nicotinamide are however toxic to the liver over 3g per day.
Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide, a.k.a. NAD+, is a coenzyme found in all living cells. It is the biologically active form of Vitamin B3. NAD+ is involved in Catecholamine (adrenal neurotransmitter) synthesis and metabolism, specifically in producing the final metabolite VMA. NAD+ is an oxidising agent and electron acceptor, whereupon it becomes reduced into NADH (a reducing agent). NADH, a.k.a. Coenzyme-1, is a reducing agent able to donate electrons. NADH is basically NAD+ plus a Hydrogen ion and 2 electrons. NADH is sometimes referred to as Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide plus high-energy Hydrogen, or even simply as Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide (to confuse matters). In this manner, NAD+ and NADH are involved in a series of redox reactions, carrying electrons from one reaction to another. As both forms are used in these linked sets of reactions, each cells maintains approximately equal concentrations of NAD+ and NADH.
NADH plays an important role in the Krebs/Citric acid cycle for energy production in the mitochondria. NADH and NAD are an essential part of the ATP to ADP conversion.
http://dehydrogenase.org/NAD
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicotinamide_Adenine_Dinucleotide
http://www.nadh-priceinfo.com/nadh_doctor_birkmayer_interview.cfm
When it comes to supplementation, both NAD+ and NADH forms of active B3 are available on the market. One could take the view that if one is going to supplement active B3, then one should take both forms in roughly equal quantities, to help maintain the 1:1 cellular ratio. However, some may debate the usefulness of this and state that it doesn't make any difference, as the body will automatically correct it and convert them to the desired ratio (electrically). Recent studies have speculated on possible reductive stress on the body on account of too much NADH supplementation - as there is insufficient O2 to oxidise it to NAD - as opposed to taking both NADH and NAD.
A typical dosage for a strong NAD(+) supplement is 20-25mg. A typical dosage for an NADH supplement is 5mg, although I have tried 10mg and 20mg versions by different manufacturers. High dosages of NADH can sometimes lead to NADH side effects of insomnia, anxiety, fatigue, and overstimulation, so if you experience such problems (more than usual if that is the case), then try reducing the dosage and try to feel the difference, to arrive at your optimum dosage - or have your practitioner use Applied Kinesiology testing on you to determine the dosage and frequency.
For example, I was muscle tested in June 2009 with both an NAD+ supplement (Coenzymated B-3 by Source Naturals) and an NADH supplement (by Natrol). The NAD+ supplement received a 'no opinion/does not care/nutrition' response (as well as certain other NADH brands) whereas the Natrol 20mg NADH supplement received a strong required/wanted response. Each individual will give a different response. I noticed myself that taking the Natrol 20mg NADH was much more effective than taking the Source Natural NAD supplement in a similar dosage. I have since tried a number of different NADH supplements, including Co-E1 NADH and Enada NADH, both of which are sold/granted under licence to various supplement manufacturers (see the ingredients for the type of NADH used), and none of these were particularly effective. Enada NADH is sold only in 5mg form, as it is considered the most powerful, but I did not find it be that useful for me personally. I was later muscle tested on Co-E1 NADH and the result was that it did 'nothing', i.e. a nutrition/food type response. Unfortunately Natrol has discontinued their NADH product (using Okepharm NADH aktiv). I tested a variety of other brands and has only found ProHealth Energy NADH to be comparable to the Natrol/Okepharm NADH. Many months later I managed to acquire a number of packets of Natrol NADH and at that point in time it did very little at all!
There are only a few laboratories that manufacture NADH, selling it in their own range of products, with other most brands producing or packaging it under licence. Manufacturers do not always state what source of NADH, so just because you buy another brand doesn't mean you aren't still taking the same source of NADH (i.e. if the source you tried isn't working for you very well). I have tried to formulate a list of different sources of NADH in the list below. Those he is unsure about (i.e. may just be selling someone else's NADH but not stating what it is on the label) , he has marked with a question mark.
- Energy NADH. By ProHealth. E.g. ProHealth ENERGY NADH
- Oekopharm NADH - by Okepharm GmbH - e.g. Okepharm NADH Aktiv, and the discontinued Natrol
- Panmol-NADH. By Panmol (Vis Vitalis GmbH) in Austria. E.g. NOW NADH
- Springfield Encozyme NADH - by Springfield Nutraceuticals BV, Netherlands
- ENADA NADH. By Birkmayer Health Products (Dr Birkmayer). E.g. Co-E1 ENADA, Source Naturals ENADA NADH, mojo +)
- Co-E1 NADH (Proprietary Blend of Pearlitol 200SD, ENADA and Kollidon). The product name Co-E1 is an abbreviation of Coenzyme-1, the alternative name for NADH. By Birkmayer Health Products (Dr Birkmayer). E.g. Co-E1 NADH, Source Naturals NADH.
- Nutri NADH (?)
Examples of NAD supplements include Source Naturals NAD and NOW Foods NAD.
As Niacin and Nicotinamide both perform other roles in the body besides its vitamin function, it may be wise to ensure one has some dietary and perhaps supplementary intake of niacin (either as niacin or inositol hexanicotinate) and nicotinamide as well, albeit in low dosages (certainly nowhere near the 1-2g mark where toxicity issues can result!)
The conenzyme, Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate (NADP+, a.k.a. TPN) is involved in anabolic reactions, like lipid and nucleic acid synthesis, which require NADPH, the reduced form of NADP+, to act as a reducing agent. NADP+ is chemically equivalent to NAD+ but with the addition of a phosphate group. This occurs by the addition of ATP to NAD+.
'The main function of NADP+ is as a reducing agent in anabolism, with this coenzyme being involved in pathways such as fatty acid synthesis and photosynthesis. Since NADPH is needed to drive redox reactions as a strong reducing agent, the NADP+/NADPH ratio is kept very low.'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nadp
http://dehydrogenase.org/NADP
back to top
Pantothenic Acid (B5):
Pantothenic Acid, or Vitamin B5, is a prerequisite for forming Coenzyme-A (CoA) and is critical in the metabolism and synthesis of carbohydrates, proteins and fats.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantothenic_acid
Small amounts of pantothenic acid are found in most food sources, but particularly concentrated in whole-grain cereals, legumes, meat, eggs and royal jelly. It is most commonly found as the Calcium salt of Pantothenic acid, Calcium Pantothenate, and also as the alcohol analog, provitamin panthenol. When ingested, it is quickly oxidised to pantothenate.
Pantethine is the dimeric form of pantothenic acid. It is a precursor to pantethine. It is an intermediate in the production of Coenzyme A by the body.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pantethine
Pantethine is considered more biologically active and absorbable than pantothenic acid, but is less stable, and decomposes over time if not kept refrigerated. Most B5 supplements are therefore in the form of Pantothenate (a salt of Pantothenic acid).
www.nowfoods.com/Products/ProductsAlphabetically/M002799.htm
'Pantethine forms the reactive component of Coenzyme A (CoA) and the acyl-carrier protein (ACP). CoA and ACP are extensively involved in carbohydrate, lipid and amino acid metabolism. In addition to possessing the metabolic activity of pantothenic acid, Pantethine helps to support healthy serum lipid levels already within the normal range. Pantethine is also important for healthy cardiovascular function through its antioxidant activity.'
back to top
Vitamin B6 and P5P:
There are various forms of vitamin B6. Those naturally occurring in food include pyridoxine (mainly from plant sources, e.g. whole grains, vegetables and nuts) and pyridoxal and pyridoxamine (mainly from meat and dairy sources). Pyridoxine is shown above. This is the most stable form which is most commonly used in B-vitamin supplements (often as Pyridoxine Hydrochloride (Pyridoxine HCl)).
There are additionally phosphate forms of the above vitamins. The phosphate form of pyridoxal is the metabolically active form of B6 used by the body in a variety of critical chemical reactions, and is known as Pyridoxal-5'-Phosphate (P-5-P or PLP). Pyridoxine is converted to P-5-P in the liver.
Studies have shown that P-5-P is 10 times more effective than Pyridoxine HCl. Absorption may be impaired in individuals with digestive problems. P-5-P is the form of B6 which is generally most efficient to supplement with P-5-P, as it is the active form, and pyridoxine serves no metabolic function (until converted to P-5-P).
http://www.vitasentials.com/p5p.htm
P5P is a co-factor in energy production and deficiency is most frequently associated with those with sleeping disorders. It is required in the body's melatonin/serotonin production cycle, and a chronic deficiency in B6/P5P may often result in the inability to stay asleep at night. It is involved in the metabolism of histamine. It is also required in amino acid metabolism, including transamination (a necessary step for gluconeogenesis - the enzmatic release of glucose from glycogen), deamination, decarboxylation, transsulphuration, selenoamino acid metabolism and for the conversion of tryptophan to Niacin (B3). P5P is the coenzyme required for proper function of the enzymes cystathionine synthase and cystathionase, which converted methionine into cysteine as part of homocysteine regulation and glutathione production. It also plays an indirect role in the biosynthesis of the Catecholamines (neurotransmitters) - adrenaline, noradrenaline and GABA (through the process of methylation). P5P is also involed in hemoglobin synthesis and function, through the synthesis of heme, and to enhance the oxygen binding of hemoglobin. It also plays a role in the absorption of amino acids in the digestive tract. Lastly, it is also involved in gene expression.
The amino acid L-Lysine is closely tied to P5P functionally, in terms of P5P's main function in transamination reaction, as Lysine is part of the aminotransferase enzyme. A deficiency of L-Lysine may result in an inability to utilise any available P5P fully and thus a functional P5P deficiency. An amino acid analysis should verify if Lysine levels are adequate or not.
Supplemental Vitamin B6 as pyroxidine is believed to worsen cases of Candida albicans whereas the active form P-5-P does not have this negative effect.
There are various P-5-P supplements, and P-5-P is by far the most effective way of supplementing B6, as opposed to the form pyroxidine, in cases where levels are chronically low. Some examples include Vital Nutrients Pyrixodal-5-Phosphate, Now Foods P-5-P and Nutri's Ultra-Muscleze (which contains a variety of minerals and vitamins including P-5-P). B6/P5P produces a temporary tingling and numbness in the fingers if taken in mega dosages over long periods, which disappears as soon as the dosage is lowered, and otherwise it is perfectly safe. The likelihood is however that the body will absorb whatever is thrown at it (in small amounts at a time of course). Otherwise the body will oxidise any excess as 4-pyridoxic acid (PA) which is the metabolite (waste product) excreted in the urine.
back to top
Biotin (B7):
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biotin
Biotin, also known as Vitamin H or B7, has a variety of important functions in the body. It assists in the metabolism of carbohydrates (CHO) i.e. gluconeogenesis pathway (energy production in lieu of glucose when hungry or fasting); in fatty acid/lipid synthesis and oxidation/metabolism; in the metabolism of the amino acid leucine; in the synthesis of pancreatic (digestive) enzymes and also in the support of healthy hair and nail growth.
In these above functions, Biotin acts as an essential cofactor (co-enzyme) responsible for carbon dioxide (CO2) group transfer in several intracellular carboxylase enzymes (e.g. involved in posttranslational modification of glutamate residues in proteins). Biotin is associated with four different enzymes in humans:
- Pyruvate carboxylase (formation of oxaloacetate from pyruvate) - Liver gluconeogenesis
- beta-Methylcrotonyl-CoA carboxylase - Leucine catabolism
- Propionyl-CoA carboxylase (conversion of propionyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA) - conversion of amino acids and propionate to glucose in the liver
- Acetyl-CoA carboxylase (carboxylation of acetyl-CoA to malonyl-CoA) - lipid synthesis from Acetate
www.chem.uwec.edu/Webpapers2001/barkacs/Pages/function.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gluconeogenesis
'Gluconeogenesis (abbreviated GNG) is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids.'
Tests on rat livers suggest that lipoic acid supplementation may reduce the activities of biotin-dependent carboxylase enzymes (responsible for amino acid conversion) in rats livers.
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/abstract/127/9/1776
Martin Pall in his book Explaining Unexplained Illnesses (discussed on the Nitric Oxide page) claims that it is well known that Lipoic Acid supplementation depletes Biotin levels, so if one is taking Lipoic Acid, one should also be taking supplemental Biotin. This is perhaps one reason why most ALA supplements contain the B-vitamin Biotin. This is also explained by manufacturers as helping to restore the activity of ALA. One should therefore consider additional supplementation with Biotin over and above what is found in Lipoic Acid supplements, if one believes one is potentially deficient or prone to deficiency (e.g. low levels of probiotic bacteria - which are responsible for the production of biotin required by the body as opposed to dietary sources).
Biotin is generally produced by our body's gut bacteria, which under normal circumstances produce more than our daily requirements. If one has a deficiency in probiotic but bacteria, then one may not produce enough biotin inside the GI tract. Dietary sources of biotin are very diverse and typically at very low concentrations. The best natural sources of biotin in food sources include liver, legume, soybeans, Swiss chard, tomatoes, romaine lettuce, and carrots, almonds, eggs, onions, cabbage, cucumber, cauliflower, goat's milk, cow's milk, raspberries, strawberries, halibut, oats, and walnuts. Highly concentrated sources of Biotin include Royal Jelly and Brewer's Yeast (also high in glutamate). Sufficient Biotin is generally produced by one's intestinal bacteria - which could be adversely affected by antibiotics etc.
Biotin is often found to be low in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. Deficiency may result in a loss of appetite. This is usually not a result of inadequate biotin intake, but a lack of the enzymes that process biotin. Approximately 50% of pregnant women are found to be deficient in biotin, and it may contribute to congenital malformations such as cleft palate.
Severe biotin deficiency can also be the result of a genetic mutation resulting in holocarboxylase synthase (HCS) deficiency, which is a lethal condition, remedied by very high daily dosages of biotin. However, it is very rare, typically affecting 1 in 200,000 newborn infants.
http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/944631-overview
I have myself suffered from biotin deficiency on two separate occasions, once in 2007 and once in latter half of 2009, focussing on other B-vitamins during that time, e.g. B6, B12 and Folic Acid. On the first occasion, there was a slight deficiency, corrected by supplementation with a high strength biotin supplement. On the subsequent occasion, the deficiency was very marked, and I was having problems with my energy levels and breaking out of a cycle of heart palpitations. Upon taking a similar Biotin supplement, I felt a warm sensation, not unlike a full body orgasm. The body in this instance really needed it and was showing it. I felt immediately better. Biotin deficienices should be corrected with biotin and probiotics supplementation.
An example of good Biotin supplements include Thorne Research Biotin-8 (8000mcg or 8mg - 2667%) or Now Foods Biotin 5000mcg.
back to top
Inositol (B8) and IP6:
Vitamin B8, a.k.a. Inositol (or cis-1,2,3,5-trans-4,5-cyclohexanehexol), is a carbocyclic polyol that is used to form a number of secondary messengers (inositides) in eukaryotic cells, including inositol phosphates, phosphatidylinositol (PI) and phosphatidylinositol phosphate (PIP) lipids. These inositides and the phosphate forms of Inositol (discussed below) are active in cell-to-cell communication, including the transmission of nerve impulses. Affected tissues include the brain, liver and the muscles. Inositol is an indirect source of glucose and glucoronic acid, which are essential for liver detoxification.
It is found in many food sources, especially cereals with a high bran content (e.g. rice bran), nuts, beans and fruit (especially cantaloupe and oranges); and also in Lecithin (in the form Phosphatiyl Inositol). The most common naturally occurring form of inositol is myo-inositol (or myoinositol). Inositol is synthesised by the body and so is no longer considered a vitamin, although the quantities that it is synthesised in may not be sufficient for requirements, and one may need to rely on dietary or supplemental sources to supplement that created within the body.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inositol
Inositol Hexakisphosphate (IP6), also known as Phytic Acid, or Phytate when in the salt form, is a form of Vitamin B8. It is the principle store of the element Phosphorus (P) in many plant tissues, especially bran and seeds. The denomination Phytates also includes the salts of related acids IP3 (Inositol Triphosphate), IP4 (Inositol Tetraphosphate) and IP5 (Inositol Pentaphosphate). As well as being a source of dietary Phosphorus, a vitamin promoting the immune system's natural NK-cells, and an antioxidant, it is also an excellent chelating agent.
It readily chelates Calcium and Magnesium in it's acid form. If taken in its salt form, i.e. Calcium-Magnesium Inositol Hexaphosphate, it is already combined with Calcium and Magnesium and will not chelate these out of the body. The salt form is therefore preferable to take as an oral supplement.
IP6 is used for chelating excess iron from the body in cases of haemochromatosis - there being no natural mechanism for removing excess iron from the body (besides menstruation in women). IP6 is also one of the few chelating agents used for Uranium removal, although I am sure that other natural chelators work well also.
IP6 is generally recommended to be taken on an empty stomach. It may be as well to ensure one is supplementing sufficient Calcium and Magnesium with meals also, and to ensure that one's Iron levels do not drop too much during the course of taking it, as this may result in various biochemical and cellular problems.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP6
When Inositol and IP6 are taken together, they can form two molecules of IP3 in the body. IP3 is regarded by some as a superior form of taking Inositol and/or IP6, as it is ready to use as a nerve impulse communicator (i.e. in its active form). Of course, one would probably want to consume inositol in its basic form as well so that it can be converted into other inositides other than IP6.
www.ip6gold.com/product_info.html
An alternative form of Inositol (B8) is Inositol Hexanicotinate (IN6?), containing six niacin or nicotinic acid (B3) groups. It is marketed as a form of 'flush-free' or 'no flush' niacin, although it does not appear to have the same potency as niacin in terms of its positive (non-vitamin) effects, e.g. lowering LDL cholesterol.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niacin#Inositol_hexanicotinate
back to top
Folic Acid (B9):
The vitamin B9, Folic acid, shown above, is the synthetic form of the vitamin, found in many supplements. It is the non bio-active form, and must go through several conversion steps before it can be utilised by the body.
Methylfolate, also known as 5-MTHF, is the naturally occurring, biologically active form of B9. 5-MTHF is described in more detail below. High folate foods include black-eye beans, Brussels sprouts, beef and yeast extract, kale, spinach, granary bread, spring greens, broccoli, parsnips and chickpeas. Liver is also very high in folic acid, but also very high in vitamin A also. Overcooking of course destroys folate, as well as other B-vitamins.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folate
A deficiency in Folate or its derivatives may result in elevated homocysteine levels, megaloblastic anaemia (THF required by bone marrow for RBC production), heart disease or DNA damage.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megaloblastic_anemia
Conversion of Folate into THF:
To be utilised in the body, folate undergoes a series of conversion steps, from its biologically inactive form to a biologically active form. Additional is capitalisation used for emphasis.
- Folate => DiHydroFolate (DHF)
Folate is first reduced by the action of Active Vitamin B3 (NADPH) to Dihydrofolate (DHF). DHF is a biologically inactive form of Folate. DHF is also produced as a byproduct of the production of Thymidine - from 5,10-Methenyl-THF (see below). - DiHydroFolate (DHF) => TetraHydroFolate (THF)
Dihydrofolate is then reduced by the action of the enzyme Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) and Vitamin B3 (NADPH) to Tetahydrofolate (THF). THF is a biologically active form of Folate and the main starting point in the Folate Cycle. - THF
Biosynthesis:
Tetrahydrofolate (THF) is produced from DHF (as described above).
DHF => THF
THF is also produced during methylation as a result of the usage of 5-Methyl-THF (5-MTHF). 5-MTHF transfers its Methyl (CH3) group to B12 (in the MTR gene), in the presence of Methionine synthase enzyme, to produce Methyl-B12 and THF. The Methyl-B12 then goes on to methylate Homocysteine back into Methionine (in presence of Methionine synthase enzyme).
5-MTHF + B12 = THF + Me-B12
THF can also be converted from 10-Formyl-THF and 5,10-Methylene-THF (see below).
Physiological Function:
THF is used as a precursor to 10-Formyl-THF (see below).
THF => 10-Formyl-THF
THF is also used in the conversion of the amino acid Serine to Glycine. In the presence of SHMT enzyme, THF reacts with Serine to produce Glycine and 5,10-Methylene-THF.
Serine + THF => Glycine + 5,10-Methylene-THF
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahydrofolate - 10-Formyl-THF (10-CHO-THF)
Biosynthesis:
10-FormylTetraHydroFolate (a.k.a. 10-Formyl-THF or 10-CHO-THF) is produced from THF. Essentially a Formyl or 'CHO' group (formate) is added to the THF molecule.
THF <=> 10-Formyl-THF
10-Formyl-THF can also be produced from 5,10-Methenyl-THF by adding a water molecule (enzymatically).
5,10-CH=THF + H2O <=> 10-CHO-THF
Physiological Function:
10-Formyl-THF is a cofactor in Purine (i.e. RNA) biosynthesis. It acts as a donor of formyl groups in anabolism (as a substrate in formyltransferase reactions). It is a precursor to 5,10-Methenyl-THF (see below) and can be reconverted back into THF.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10-Formyltetrahydrofolate - 5,10-Methenyl-THF (5,10-CH=THF)
Biosynthesis:
5,10-MethenylTetraHydroFolate (a.k.a. 5,10-Methenyl-THF, 5,10-CH=THF, Levomefolic acid or L-methylfolate) is produced from 10-Formyl-THF (10-CHO-THF) by essentially removing an 'O', i.e. replacing the Formyl group (CHO) with a Methenyl group (CH). It can also be converted from Methylene-THF (5,10-CH2=THF).
10-Formyl-THF <=> 5,10-Methenyl-THF
Physiological Function:
5,10-Methenyl-THF is an intermediate in Histidine catabolism - and can be reconverted back into 10-Formyl-THF (see above).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5,10-Methenyltetrahydrofolate - 5,10-Methylene-THF (5,10-CH2-THF)
Biosynthesis:
5,10-MethyleneTetraHydroFolate (a.k.a. 5-10-Methylene-THF or 5,10-CH2-THF or Active Formaldehyde) - is produced from 5-10-Methenyl-THF (5,10-CH=THF) - essentially by adding an 'H', i.e. replacing the Methenyl group (CH) with a Methylene group (CH2).
5,10-Methenyl-THF <=> 5,10-Methylene-THF
Physiological Function:
5,10-Methylene-THF is a precursor to 5-Methyl-THF (5-MTHF). 5-10-CH2-THF is converted to 5-MTHF in the presence of the MTHFR enzyme.
5-10-Methylene-THF => 5-MTHF
5,10-Methylene-THF is also a co-enzyme in the biosynthesis of the purine Thymidine (a constituent of DNA) - and a coenzyme in the production of Glycine in humans. 5-10-CH2-THF reacts with Deoxyuridine Monophosphate (dUMP) in the presence of Thymidylate synthetase enzyme to produce DHF and Thymidine monophosphate (dTMP).
5-10-CH2-THF + dUMP <=> DHF + dTMP
5-Methylene-THF is also used in the conversion of the amino acid Glycine to Serine. In the presence of SHMT enzyme, 5,10-Methylene-THF can react with Glycine to form Serine and THF (i.e. reconverting itself back to THF).
Glycine + 5,10-Methylene-THF = Serine + THF
5-Methylene-THF can produce Glycine by reacting with Ammonium (NH4+), CO2, H+ ion and Active B3.
CO2 + NH4(+) + 5,10-CH2-THF + NADH + H(+) <=> Glycine + THF + NAD(+)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5,10-Methylenetetrahydrofolate
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glycine#Biosynthesis - 5-Methyl-THF (5-MTHF)
Biosynthesis:
5-Methyl-TetraHydroFolate, a.k.a. Levomefolic acid, Methyl-THF, L-5-Methyl Tetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF), Methyl-H4 Folate or 5-CH3-THF, is formed by the reduction of 5,10-Methylene-THF using Vitamin B3 (NADPH) as a cofactor (via the enzyme MethyleneTetraHydroFolate Reductase (MTHFR).
5,10-CH2-THF + NADPH => 5-MTHF + NADP
Commercial 5-MTHF supplement suppliers use a preparation method that is sold under licence by Merck.
Physiological Function:
5-MTHF is the main active and isomeric form of folate in the blood. 5-MTHF main role in the body is as part of the methylation process. It is used in conjunction with Methyl-B12 to form MTR (5-MethylTetraHydroFolate-Homocysteine MethylTransferase), a human gene and type of transferase enzyme that transfers a methyl group from a donor to an acceptor (in this case remethylating homocysteine to methionine). 5-MTHF transfers its Methyl (CH3) group to B12 (in the MTR gene), in the presence of Methionine synthase enzyme, to produce Methyl-B12 and THF. The Methyl-B12 then goes on to methylate Homocysteine back into Methionine (in presence of Methionine synthase enzyme). THF then is the product of 5-MTHF usage in methylation.
5-MTHF + B12 = THF + Me-B12
A deficiency in 5-MTHF can result in elevated (toxic) Homocysteine levels, and risk of heart disease and miscarriage (if pregnant). Similarly, a deficiency in vitamin B12 can also result in elevated Homocysteine levels and appear similar to a functional folate deficiency even though the body had enough 5-MTHF. A deficiency in Vitamin B12 or in MTR can thus result in an excess of 5-MTHF which cannot be de-methylated and converted back to THF. Please see the Homocysteine Reconversion section below for more information.
A high level (and incomplete) view of the Folate cycle can be seen below in an article on Nature.com. - MediClear by Thorne Research is a protein supplement based on rice protein and rice bran, and soy bean extracts. It contains a wide variety of ingredients from vitamins and minerals, to trace elements and antioxidants. It is designed for nutritional support for inflammation allergies, detoxification support and gastrointestinal integrity, according to the label. A list of ingredients can be found at the link below. It is approximately 59% protein and 8% dietary fibre. It comes in a 980g tub, and serving size varies from 1/2 a scoop 12g to 2 scoops (49g).
- Garden of Life have two new protein/meal replacement products as of 2010, Raw Meal and Raw Protein. These are high quality products containing a mixture of different organic, raw bean sprouts, sprouted grains, sprouted seeds and greens. The main ingredient seems to be rice protein. Both are very high in protein, but Raw Protein contains a slightly higher protein content. Raw Meal has a slight coconut taste and contains a large amount of Rice Sweetener and is 25% sugaring carbohydrates by weight, but per 85g serving this is only approximately the same amount of sugar as in an apple. Raw Meal has virtually no sugar in it and very little carbohydrate. I muscle tested for Raw Meal and not Raw Protein, even though Raw Meal contains a small amount of coconut flesh which he is midly allergic to.
- Juvo Natural Raw Meal, also marketed as Juvo Original, is similar in some respects to GOL's Raw Meal (perhaps a copy) but it seems in some respects to be a superior product. The sugaring carbohydrate content is much lower, at 2g per 40g serving, or 5% of total dry product weight. It contains a variety of vegetables, fruit, mushrooms, herbs, prebiotic fibres as well as brown rice and brown rice protein. The focus is less on sprouted ingredients.
- Sun Warrior Protein Raw Vegan is a type of no frills vegan protein mixture with no additives, made from whole brown rice protein (bio fermented raw sprouted whole grain brown rice protein). It is 85% protein.
http://www.sunwarrior.com/products/sunwarrior-protein - Metagenics/Nutri have been mentioned above, in the context of their UltraMeal Whey product. They have a parallel product, based on soy protein or rice protein, which has a reasonable amount of Fructose in it, and is almost as good tasting as its Whey counterpart. It comes in Strawberry, Chocolate and Vanilla flavours. This is not likely to be very alkalising.
- Another formula is Jarrow Formula's Fermented Soy Essence, which is a fermented soy yoghurt formula which has no added sugar. As with any soy protein supplement, one does not want to consume too much on account of Phytoestrogens which are endocrine disrupting chemicals. This is not likely to be very alkalising.
- Olympian Labs Pea Protein - this is a pea protein isolate which has no fibre, carbohydrate, sugar or fat content. It has added natural vanilla, stevia and xylitol added and has a pleasant taste/texture. I personally add 3 tsps of chia seed fibre to it. The product has a warning on it for California residents about its Lead content, but this is not uncommon, and actually contains less than 0.5ppm, which is in line with many other protein isolates and algae sources. This is not likely to be very alkalising.
- Source Naturals Pea Protein
- Jarrow Formulas Hemp Protein (Organic) - tastes of hemp seed as you would expect, but is 50% protein, and only 1g of sugaring carbohydrate per 30g serving. Fat content is 4g.
- Olympian Labs Beef Protein - is 80% protein and has a very high Biological Value (BV) of 90%. Also contains chocolate and stevia extract.
The Folate Cycle
The Folate Cycle comprises of 5 molecule types in total: THF and 4 THF derivatives. These are biologically active forms of Folate. In general terms, these different forms of active folate perform different biological functions, including methylation, purine (DNA and RNA) biosynthesis, and amino acid conversion.
Folinic Acid:
5-Formyl TetraHydroFolate (5-Formyl-THF or 5-FTHF), a.k.a Folinic acid or Leucovorin, is a 5-formyl derivative of tetrahydrofolic acid (THF). It is a synthetic, enantiopure (S-form as opposed to L-form) drug that is readily converted into Tetrahydrofolate (THF) and thus is easily metabolised into 5-MTHF by the body, even though it is not a natural precursor to THF that is created in the body. The Sodium or Calcium salt form is Folinate. Folinic acid (5-FTHF) is not the same as Folic acid - neither is Folinate the same as Folate.
Folinic acid and folinate are used in cancer chemotherapy. Folinic acid is more stable to oxidation than folic acid and requires less steps to bioassimilation, and can be taken and utlised whilst suppressing the body's natural processes for converting folate to THF. The problem of Folic acid in cancer treatment is described below.
Cancer cells are known to replicate at a very high rate. One of the goals of cancer treatment (in theory) is therefore to slow down this rate of replication of the cancer cells whilst simultaneously fighting the cancer cells and also promoting as much normal cellular activity in healthy cells as possible. In reality, chemotherapy has a number of negative effects on healthy cell function and the body as a whole, as it is a form of toxification (poisoning) and source of potentially high oxidative stress.
Excess folate is thought to promote tumor initiation in cancer patients (once one has cancer - through promoting cell division generally), but is also thought to decrease the likelihood of cancer occurring in the first place (in non-cancer patients, i.e. less potential for DNA damage) - although not all studies show the latter to be true - clearly there are other factors to take into consideration (i.e. a toxified and 'acidic' body fed with an excess of folate may provide a good base for which cancer to develop from in some individuals perhaps). Of course, folate deficiency in non-cancer patients may result in DNA damage and therefore perhaps an increased chance of developing cancer.
The toxic chemotherapy drug Methotrexate is used to inhibit the action of the DHFR enzyme, which is involved in the conversion of DHF to THF. Thus, taking Methotrexate can drastically lower 5-MTHF levels in the body, particularly in the bone marrow and gastrointestinal mucosa cells, and thus inhibit the rapid cell replication of cancer cells that occurs with THF. Thus the folate naturally present in a person's diet can be excluded from the equation, or at least lowered to a significant degree, such that only a small amount of 5-MTHF will be produced from it.
Folinic acid or Folinate is highly resistant to oxidation (c/f chemotherapy drugs) and can also be converted to THF and thus 5-MTHF without being affected by the deactivation of the DHFR enzyme, effectively bypassing that earlier part of the Folate synthesis chain. It is already contains the THF form, and THF is liberated once the Formyl group is broken off. This is why it is the form of B9 of choice for chemotherapy patients, as 5-MTHF might be more readily oxidised prior to utilisation.
Thus in the presence of DHFR inhibition (i.e. Methotrexate intake), Folinic acid allows for some purine/pyrimidine synthesis to occur so that some normal DNA replication and RNA transcription processes can occur (e.g. to aid in cases of anaemia). The amount of THF and thus methylene-THF and 5-MTHF produced and utilised by the different parts of the body can be strictly controlled, if the Folinic acid levels are controlled carefully. Whilst some 5-MTHF is still produced from the patient's food, the amounts produced via this route are very low relative to the amount of Folinic acid or Folinate taken supplementally, which can be tightly controlled, to meet the person's B9 requirements without having an adverse effect on tumor growth. Of course, too much Methotrexate may result in too much of the dietary folate being suppressed, potentially resulting in folate deficiency, and too much Folinic acid can cancel out the effects of the drug methotrexate and result in encourage tumor cell replication, thus reducing the effectiveness of the chemotherapy - so one would have all the harmful effects of chemotherapy without any of the benefits.
Folinic acid is also used synergistically in combination with the colon cancer chemotherapy agent 5-fluorouracil (to inhibit the thymidylate synthase enzyme) and may enhance its toxicity.
There are no notable side effects of Folinic Acid for cancer or non-cancer patients. Folinic acid is a readily available source of THF, which as we have seen above is used in the production of DNA, RNA and the amino acid Glycine. It may be beneficial for anyone and is arguably a better form of B9 than Folic acid supplements. THF is also a precusor to 5-MTHF, however, it may not be usable for this purpose in 25% of the population as you can read in the following section.
http://www2.netdoctor.co.uk/medicines/100000423.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folinic_acid
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folate#Cancer
MTHFR Enzyme Deficiency
There are a number of polymorphism of the MTHFR gene that regulates the MTHFR enzyme. This enyzme is responsible for reducing methylene-THF into 5-Methyl-THF (5-MTHF). A given individual may have no polymorphisms, or one or more polymorphisms. The polymorphisms themselves vary in severity. Roughly 25% of humans suffer from this genetic disorder known as MTHFR enzyme deficiency. These individuals do not adequately convert enough of the folate they consume from dietary or even Folic acid (and Folinic acid) supplements into the active form of folate, 5-MTHF, that is used by the body, and unless they supplement 5-MTHF, will likely develop mildly elevated homocysteine levels which has adverse health effects. This is not to say that they may not develop worse 5-MTHF deficiency for dietary reasons (not consuming enough folate) or because of digestive malabsorption issues associated with many environmental illnesses.
Severe MTHFR deficiency is extremely rare however and can result in dangerously elevated Homocysteine levels, and virtually zero conversion of 5,10-Methylene-THF into 5-MTHF.
Women with this condition and/or dietary/malabsorption issues (and thus low Folate intake) may suffer pregnancy complications as 5-MTHF is crucial in methylation and cell synthesis (hence embryo growth). Unfortunately Folic acid is heavily marketed by pharmaceutical companies and supermarkets as being a great option for pregnant mothers, but 1 in 4 women may not gain as much benefit from it as they might. There are many conversion steps involved and an active form of Folate may be in any case a better option. One can but speculate to what extent this condition results in birth defects or health problems and conditions amongst newborns in the short or long term (i.e. in later life).
Genetic testing for the MTHFR gene that produces the MTHFR enzyme is costly, but one can identify 5-MTHF deficiencies via amino acid analysis profiles. If one is going to supplement Folate then one should probably take a supplement that at least contains the 5-MTHF form of folate. Folinate or Folinic acid may be useful as well, although it will only be utilised as THF in the body in DNA synthesis and will not be able to be converted to 5-MTHF to take part in methylation (because of the MTHFR enzyme deficiency).
Whilst 75% of people do not have MTHFR enzyme deficiency, this is not to say that at some time or other, their MTHFR enzymes are not functioning as they should be (i.e. to convert MTHF to 5-MTHF), or perhaps another bottleneck further back in the chain to turn Folate into MTHF. In addition, intestinal absorption of folate may be impaired.
http://www.pregnancy-info.net/mthfr.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MTHFR
Examples of 5-MTHF and Folinic Acid supplements:
In general, I would suggest one consider Folinic Acid (or Folinate) and 5-MTHF supplements in preference to Folic acid supplements.
Examples of good folate supplements include:
- Nutritional Concepts' ActiFolate (containing 5-MTHF, Folinic and Folic acid)
- Metagenics Folapro (containing 800mcg 5-MTHF)
- Thorne Research 5-MTHF (1000mcg)
- Thorne Research Ferrasorb (containing both 5-MTHF and Folinic Acid as well as Iron and B12)
- Metagenics Intrinsi B12/Folate (containing Folic acid and 5-MTHF, as well as Cyano-B12 and a porcine glycoprotein intrinsic factor reputed to enhance B12 absorption).
Regarding regular Folic acid supplements, I have personally found that in 2007, supplementation with Folic Acid supplements made me feel considerably better for a time, even euphoric at the time of taking them. However, in 2009, I was suggested a very high strength Folic Acid supplement (20,000 mcg), which another doctor muscle tested on me and said that it did nothing. During 2010, I developed a severe 5-MTHF deficiency after only a week of having run out of Thorne Research 5-MTHF and a mini-crash of energy from overexertion. I had been taking this 20,000mcg Folic Acid supplement several times a day to try to correct this, but it did not have much effect. It was only when I took 150mcg of 5-MTHF four times a day that I felt immeasurably better. The 5-MTHF supplement also muscle tested positively on me. I would therefore not really recommend regular Folic Acid as a supplement.
Folate does become toxic to the liver if taken at high dosages for long periods, but as it is water-soluble, its levels never really build up too much. But it is something to be aware of, and elevated levels may be identified in blood serum tests.
back to top
Vitamin B12:
Vitamin B12 helps to protects nerve tissue and brain cells. As described below, it is a cofactor of methionine synthase, an essential step in methylation and homocysteine regulation, the process behind the creation of essential neurotransmitters. Methylcobalamin also protects the eye function against toxicity caused by excess glutamate. It is also involved in the creation of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) in the bone marrow, together with Iron. It is the most structurally complex vitamin and is the main dietary source of the mineral Cobalt.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_B12
Vitamin B12 is found in meat, fish, poultry, egg and milk products. It is the B-vitamin most commonly low in vegans and vegetarians, whose food is in general quite low in Vitamin B12, with specific exceptions. Vegetarians and vegans may elect to supplement B12 or to eat a food source rich in B12. This could be an algae like Spirulina or a yeast extract product like Marmite (but which is also high in glutamate). One must take into account that algae has a cold energetic property. Marmite was originally created because the brewing industry had so much excess yeast, it was literally throwing it away. It was a waste product. Opportunistic entrepreneurs created a product to make use of the cheap source of yeast.
Methylcobalamin (a.k.a. Methyl-B12, MeB12 or MeCbl) and Adenosylcobalamin (a.k.a. Adenosyl-B12, Ado-B12, AdoCbl, Cobamamide or Dibencozide) are the coenzymatic forms of B12 that are used in chemical reactions in the body. They are considered to be the most readily absorbed forms of Vitamin B12.
Methyl-B12 is the form directly used in methylation (see the Folic Acid section above and the Homocysteine Reconversion section below for more information).
B12 is also a vital part of the enyzme Methylmalonyl Coenzyme A mutase (MUT) which uses the Adenosyl-B12 (AdoB12) form. MUT is involved in carbohydrate metabolism, converting Methylmalonyl-CoA (MMI-CoA), the coenzyme A link form of methylmalonic acid (MMA), into Succinic-CoA (Su-CoA), the conenzyme A link form of succinic acid. It forms part of the Krebs cycle for the production of energy (mitochondrial function).
Hydroxocobalamin (Hydroxo-B12 or OHCbl) is another form of B12. It is the form of vitamin B12 that is naturally occurring in food sources of B12. It is actually the precursor to Methyl-B12 and Adenosyl-B12, and is converted in the liver to these two active forms. It is known to be a more potent inhibitor of Nitric Oxide production than the two final forms of active B12, as discussed on the Nitric Oxide and Peroxynitrite page.
Cyanocobalamin (Cyano-B12) is a synthetic form of B12 which does not occur in nature. It is the least readily absorbable form, but is the most common form sold in supplement form as it is more stable in air. Cyanocobalamin is not the active form of B12. In order for the body to use this form of B12 it must enzymatically remove the cyanide portion of this molecule, releasing it in the form of thiocyanate which can be safely excreted. The remaining cobalamin portion must then be converted into methylcobalamin or adenosylcobalamin (via hydroxocobalamin), in order for it to perform useful biological work. Because some people lack (or do not have enough of) the proper enzyme to actively detoxify and convert cyanocobalamin, or are overwhelmed by the ingestion of too much cyanide (which can inhibit Cyano-B12 conversion), it can accumulate in the body resulting in toxicity. (reference: Linnell JC, Matthews DM. Cobalamin metabolism and its clinical aspects. Clin Sci (Lond). 1984 Feb/66(2):113-21.)'
Cyanocobalamin can be produced from three sources: 1) extracted from mammalian liver 2) as a metabolic product of bacterial fermentation 3) extracted from sewage sludge.
www.centrumistoxic.com/b12.html
[Cyanocobalamin] 'Although generally accepted as safe (GRAS) by the FDA for human consumption, human studies have reported allergic reactions to skin testing, and mice given 1.5-3 mg/kg (i.e. 1500 - 3000 mcg/kg) body weight experienced convulsions, followed by cardiac and respiratory failure.'
The above is probably 50-100 times the dosage of the highest strength Cyanocobalamin supplements on the market, so the likelihood of toxicity in humans is very low.
Both Methylcobalamin and Cyanocobalamin are pink in colour. Hydroxo-B12 is red. One may elect to take both Methyl-B12 and Adenosyl-B12, take Hydroxocobalamin, or just stick to Methyl-B12. An example of good B12 supplement is Jarrow Formula's Methyl-B12 5000 (containing 5000mcg per tablet). Hydoxo-B12 is a good form to take for lowering oxidative stress due to excessive NO and Peroxynitrite. B12 supplements are probably best taken sublingually (under the tongue).
Methylcobalamin intra-muscular (IM) injections are not uncommonly used with CFS, ME and FMS patients, and can easily be performed oneself when shown how by a qualified nurse, a supply of sterile syringes and Methyl-B12 ampoules being provided to the patient. A typical dosage might be 20mg (20,000mcg) (i.e. 1ml of a 40mg/2ml concentration ampoule) - administered up to 3 times a week, for a period of 4 weeks.
back to top
Naturally sourced supplemental forms of B-vitamins:
Aside from direct food sources, there are a number of products on the market that contain naturally occurring or produced forms of B-vitamins. Some of these as listed below. Of course, it is a matter of debate as to whether natural (i.e. plant of yeast) sources of B-vitamins (in their 'standard' forms that require processing by the body before they can be used) or whether synthetic forms of B-vitamins in the biologically active and coenzymatic forms are actually better to take supplementally.
Premier Research Labs' Max Stress B Nano-Plex is a B-Vitamin supplement that is produced from probiotic fermentation. The B vitamins are present in RDA type dosages, but it appears to be at least as effective if not more effective than other B vitamin supplements where the vitamins are present in HUGE dosages. This is probably on account of their natural and unaltered molecular form rendering them more readily utilised by cells. It does appear to be rather high in Glutamate however (having that Glutamate type taste). The product is also marketed by Quantum Nutrition Labs.
http://www.qnhshop.com/product.php?productid=16140&cat=296&page=1
Garden of Life offer a raw food (fruit and greens) based vitamin product called The Vitamin Code. This contains a wide variety of vitamins and minerals taken from raw food sources. It comes in a capsule form. Special formulations are made for both men and women, although for CFS sufferers (!) one would assume to take the one designed for one's sex. I have tried this and is reasonable happy with the results. It does however contain brewer's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and so so may slightly high in glutamate. The S.cerevisiae is not live however, and has been killed off using the protease enzyme Papain during preparation, which breaks down its cell wall. S.cerevisiae is presumably included for its B-vitamin content, which also increases the Glutamate content.
www.thevitamincode.com/Formulas/Men/tabid/1313/Default.aspx
www.gardenoflife.com/ProductsforLife/THEVITAMINCODE/MensFormula/tabid/1369/Default.aspx
Dream Health's D.R.E.A.M. Complete Liquid Vitamin & Mineral Supplement is a fruit juice and plant extract based drink, which contains a wide variety of vitamins (including B-Vitamins - from articifial sources?), trace minerals and amino acids. It contains aloe vera juice, cultured seaweeds, agave nectar and ginkgo biloba. It is perhaps a little high in carbohydrate, but one is not meant to drink more than 1 fluid ounce per day in any case. It may be slightly high in glumate on account of the cultivated seaweed content, but equally it contains a large number of other amino acids, so it should not be a problem. There are other similar products on the market, but this is a particularly good example.
http://www.iherb.com/ProductDetails.aspx?pid=1099950370681516102
Dr Ben Kim's Health Supporting Formulas range includes a product called 'Comprehensive Vitamin & Mineral Formula - 100% Whole Food & Botanicals'. It contains a variety of fruit, cereal grass, vegetable and herb extracts. as well as immune system stimulating and adaptogenic herbs.
https://www.drbenkim.com/sunshop/index.php?l=product_detail&p=57
www.drbenkim.com
Marmite, the famous yeast extract spread, is manufactured from brewer's yeast (candida neutral), and contains significant quantities of various B-vitamins, including B1, B2, B3 and B9 (Folic Acid), produced naturally by the yeast. Vitamin B12 does not naturally occur in Marmite or brewer's yeast in general, and is added (in synthetic form?) Marmite is 39% protein, 24% carbohydrate and 3.4% fibre by weight. The Australian version (unlike the European version) contains added refined sugar so is to be avoided. However Marmite and other yeast extract products are very high in Glutamate which is discussed on the Food Intolerance page.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmite
Spirulina is a good natural source of vitamin B-12. Please see the Digestion page for further information.
back to top
B-Vitamin Dosages for CFS Sufferers:
In many patients of CFS or other conditions, the uptake of B-vitamins is extremely poor, for bio-chemical reasons, and the only mechanism remaining for absorption of certain B-vitamins may be diffusion, which is highly inefficient. For that reason, high strength B-vitamin supplements are often used.
e.g.1.) 25mg TTP (Active B1) per tablet, 3 times a day; e.g. Source Naturals Coenzymated B-1.
e.g.2.) 20mg NADH (Active B3) per tablet, as required, 1-8 times per day; e.g. Natrol NADH 20mg.
e.g.3.) 50mg P5P (Active B6) per capsule, up to 6 capsules per day; e.g. Vital Nutrients P5P 50mg.
e.g.4.) 8000mcg Biotin (B7) tablets (2667% RDA), 3 times a day; e.g. Thorne Research Biotin-8 (8000mcg or 8mg).
e.g.4) 20mg Folic Acid (B9), once a day (5000% RDA); e.g. Bio Tech Pharmacal's Folic Acid.
e.g.5) 1000mcg (1mg) 5-MTHF (Active Folate/B9), 2 capsules twice a day; e.g. Thorne Research 5-MTHF.
e.g.6.) 250mcg Adenosycobalamin B12 (15,000% RDA) per capsule, up to 6 capsules per day; e.g. Nutri Ltd Methyl Max
e.g.7.) 5000mcg Methylcobalamin B12 per day (83,333% RDA) - from Detoxx Book, e.g. Jarrow Formulas Methyl B-12 5000
e.g.8.) 1000mcg Methylcobalamin B12 (16,666% RDA), 3-5 times a day; e.g. Jarrow Formulas Methyl B-12 1000
The above dosages are not being necessarily recommended but are for illustrative purposes only. It is best to determine the dosages using Applied Kinesiology. You could also experiment yourself with the dosages and try different forms and types of supplements, within sensible limits (at your own risk of course!) In certain cases, a patient may greatly benefit from weekly injections of Vitamin B12 for example, where oral supplementation is not necessarily resulting in higher B12 levels in the blood and tissues. B12 injections are normally in the form of 2000mcg cyanocobalamin injections, either intra muscular (IM) or intra venous (IV).
Myer's Cocktail is an IV or Intra Muscular injection containing a variety of nutritional elements and vitamins, including Magnesium (typically sulphate or chloride), Calcium Gluconate, and Vitamins C, B12 (hydroxycobalamin), B6 (pyridoxine), B5 (dexpanthenol), and B complex 100. Glutathione can be optionally included. There are different ways of administering the Myer's Cocktail, and some nurses/doctors inject a low dosage in one quick IM injection (a minute or two).
http://www.endfatigue.com/tools-support/Iv-Nutritional-Support.html
Others prefer to work with much large quantities of the Cocktail and administer it slowly (using a drip) over a period of perhaps 30 to 60 minutes (IV).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myers'_cocktail
According to Jacob Teitelbaum's recipe, the following dosages are employed in the Myer's Cocktail. The higher dosages are administered over a longer period of time:
- Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C) - 500mg/ml; 1-10ml: 500 - 5000mg
- Magnesium Sulphate - 500mg/ml (50% - typo in above link); 2-4ml: 1-2mg
- Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6) - 100mg/ml; 1ml; 100mg
- Hydroxycobalamin (Vitamin B12) - 3000mcg/ml; 1ml; 3000mcg (3mg) - IM
- B-Complex 100 (no concentration information) - 0.5-1.0ml
- Dexpanthenol (Vitamin B5) - 250mg/ml; 0.5ml: 125mg
- Calcium Gluconate - 100mg/ml (10%); 4-10ml: 400-1000mg
- Glutathione - 200mg/ml; 2-5ml: 400mg - 1000mg - administered separately
Please see the Phospholipid Therapy section on the Detoxification page for more information on Glutathione and Phospholipid injections.
Below is a web site summarising the RDAs of B vitamins for healthy people of a variety of ages, and also therapeutic doses. Some of the side effects of deficiencies and too high levels of various B-vitamins are summarised.
www.acu-cell.com/bx2.html
When purchasing any vitamin or mineral supplements, one should really try to look at the ingredients and look out for and avoid products containing various unwanted compounds, like sucrose (i.e. refined sugar), dextrose or titanium dioxide. It is best to purchase products from reputable brands that you know are of very high quality.
back to top
Assimilable/Alkalising Forms of Protein: Spirulina, Chlorella and Quality Whey:
back to top
-
Overview
Whilst addressing the quality of digestion, it is also useful to take a readily digestible form of protein, such as a Whey supplement or an algae such as Spirulina. These high protein 'supplements' may help patients to gain more muscle strength and to increase the amount of resistance training they can do, which they never thought possible. They are also alkalising, as opposed to most protein sources, especially meat sources, that tend to be acidifying on the body, lowering its pH. The plant-based sources discussed below are rich in nutrients and chlorophyll. All the supplements discussed below are rich in DNA/RNA.
Not all forms of dietary protein are acidifying of course, and sprouted beans and seeds are mostly alkaline in their effect on the body, as opposed to the non-sprouted forms of the respective nuts and seeds. When it comes to protein quality, other than Whey, then Eggs are also graded as 100% protein quality. If you are not vegan, then eating eggs regularly may help the body to rebuild itself.
I have personal experience of people who go to a physiotherapist for many years, without any progress, but start taking a protein supplement such as whey protein or spirulina, and are back on heavy weights again in a matter of weeks. However, progress clearly is dependent on the individual's exact condition, and this was certainly not the case a few years later during my recovery process.
It may be wise to kinesiologically test which protein source agrees best with you. Taking easy assimilated forms of protein may be helpful, but if the body still cannot effectively convert and synthesize the different amino acids it requires for various bodily processes and muscle/tendon growth, then it may be of limited benefit. It is best to have a good consultant to kinesiologically test protein supplements on the patient to ascertain which can be readily assimilated (as assimilation is the key issue here.)
Such protein supplements, and taking additional digestive enzymes and betaine HCl may assist in some conversion of specific amino acids, they are unlikely to completely relieve amino acid conversion issues that a person may have. Clearly the extent of physical capability varies dramatically between sufferers of CFS and related conditions, and some are barely able to walk, whereas others are active in weight training and cardio-vascular exercise. Much of this relates to the person's general energy (qi) levels, and also his or her ability to effectively convert and synthesize all the different amino acids properly. Amino acid conversion dysfunction is rarely exactly the same in one person as in another person, and is often highly complex.
back to top
Quality Whey
Whey, a.k.a. milk plasma, is the liquid remaining after milk has been curdled and strained. It is also the by-product of cheese or casein manufacture. Some harshly refer to it as a waste. It has a number of health benefits for those who are not sensitive to dairy. Whey protein are the globular proteins (globinstagers) isolated from massive whey, typically 65% beta-lactoglobulin, 25% alpha-lactalubmin and 8% serum albumin. Whey has the highest known biological value (BV) of any known protein (100). BV is a measure of how efficiently a substance can be digested and absorbed through the villi of the small intestine into the blood stream, maintaining its original form.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whey
Many cheap whey supplements are available on the market, however, most are heat-denatured, and the body is actually allergic to them. Good products include Mercola's Pro-Optimal Whey (formerly known as Mercola's Whey Healthier, and also branded PaleoMeal by Designs for Health) and Designs for Health' WheyCool (the actual whey protein concentrate used in Whey Healthier/Paleomeal). Both contain semi-digested whey and are enhanced with a wide variety of nutrients. In terms of taste, I find UltraMeal Whey to be by far the tastiest, with the other variants being more 'functional'. By weight, WheyCool is the best value for money. The cheapest non-denatured (and non-growth hormone) whey product that I have found is Natural Factors' Whey Factors.
Non-denatured whey protein, has many similar properties to raw milk, and has the advantage of having a higher DNA/RNA count (heat and pasteurisation actually damaging/destroying much of the beneficial DNA and RNA content of dairy products). Non-denatured whey protein has the advantage of preventing excessive build up of Peroxynitrite, a harmful oxidising agent that can cause excessive oxidative stress and also impede mitochondrial and cardiac function (indirectly), as discussed on the Heart Insufficiency page.
They also contain many of the essential raw materials for producing Glutathione (GSH), an essential internally produced antioxidant that is also strongly anti-viral and is used in detoxification by the body. Non-denatured whey protein also tends to contain a high immunoglobulin count (depending on the exact product in question), and so are beneficial for the immune system on a number of counts. The amino acid rich content is also useful in detoxification.
Various algae types, quality whey supplements, and also amino acid supplements (particularly branched chain amino acids) may also help when detoxing, as heavy metals and other toxins may attach themselves to them and create a way of carrying them out of the body when it comes to their elimination.
According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), dairy foods, raw cold energy foods, and foods contained refined sugar or brown sugar tend to have a detrimental effect on individuals with a weak spleen meridian. To what extent this concerns raw dairy, non-denatured dairy or just dairy in general is not fully certain. In addition, dairy products, particularly milk and cheese (yoghurt less so) is detrimental to patients who suffer from excessive Damp energy. They are also sources of warm/hot energy. Please see the Hot and Cold Energy section below for more information. The stomach and spleen meridians tend to be quite weak in indiviuals with CFS, and Dampness is not uncommon, but of course the exact energetic pattern varies from individual to individual and should be identified by a qualified practitioner.
The ingredients of these non-denatured whey products can be found at the links below.
http://www.mercola.com/forms/whey_healthier.htm
http://catalog.designsforhealth.com/s.nl/it.A/id.1244/.f
Metagenics/Nutri's Ultrameal Whey is a whey protein isolate formula, which contains hydrolysed whey protein. This is not strictly speaking non-denatured whey, but at various points, I have found that it muscle tested positively on him. It may however contain moderate amounts of Free Glutamate.
www.metagenics.com/products/detail.asp?pid=245
I personally find that a Whey drink is best consumed thick. This can either be achieved by using more powder for a glass volume of liquid (if your stomach can handle it), or adding less water, whichever suits you best. You can always drink additional water afterwards.
back to top
Spirulina
Spirulina is shown above, in powder form. It is also available in tablet form. Below, individual Spirulina algae cells are shown under a microscope.
Spirulina is a blue-green algae, rich in a variety of nutrients, such as B12, enzymes, carotenoids, chlorophyll, phytonutrients, DNA and RNA, and contains some Omega 6 and 9 fatty acids and pigments, and minerals. It has very mild detoxifying properties, on account on the high chlorophyll content. It is 95% digestible (as opposed to Chlorella which is 70% digestible). It is a complete protein. A heaped teaspoon three times a day (maximum) may perhaps be highly beneficial. As with Chlorella, Spirulina has a cold energy (c/f TCM) and so it is best not to take large amounts. Algae is generally thought by believed to be beneficial for those with Qi deficiency, to help create more blood (i.e. Red Blood Cells). Algae is also alkaline in nature, and it is helpful to take additional betaine HCl tablets with your chlorella so that your (probably very low levels of) stomach acid is not neutralised (generally 500-700mg of Betaine HCl per heaped teaspoon of Spirulina). It may be best to kill parasites and candida first before taking algae supplements, on account of food allergies resulting from foreign organism overgrowth, but this varies according to individual. Algae supplements are ideally taken 30 minutes before a meal. Candida may cause food allergies making a person sensitive to certain foods/supplements.
Whether Hawaiian Spirulina Pacifica is actually better than Spirulina Platensis is a matter of debate. It is probably best to try smaller quantities of various brands from local suppliers and to see which one agrees with you best, then bulk buy your favourite. It is recommended to stick with a high quality brand, as low quality brands can often contain high levels of heavy metals. Please note that Cyanotech in Hawaii are the only company to actually grow Spirulina Pacifica (which is a sub-strain of Platensis), grown only in Hawaii. Various brands resell this Spirulina Pacifica, including Nutrex, Now and MicroOrganics in the UK.
Earthrise is a well respected supplier of Spirulina Platensis.
Please see the links page for a list of suppliers and distributors, where you can also find nutritional composition charts if you would like to compare.
The nutritional composition of Cyanotech Spirulina Pacifica can be found at the link below.
www.cyanotech.com/spirulina/spirulina_specs.html
The nutritional composition of Spirulina Platensis can be found at the link below.
www.liferesearchuniversal.com/spirulina2.html
It should be noted that whilst Spirulina provides many health benefits, it does contain a not insignificant amount of Aspartic Acid (9.8%) and Glutamic Acid (14.6%) which are both excitatory amino acids (neurotransmitters) in the nervous system. These are not in the form of free amino acids, but are bound in proteins, and so the levels should not be a problem. The amount of Spirulina consumed is also relatively now in most circumstances, so the actual dry weight of these amino acids is likely to be quite low. Excessive consumption may result in elevated Aspartate and Glutamate levels in the body, which if it occurs, should be responded to by cutting down on Glutamate and Aspartate rich foods and Taurine and GABA supplementation. Please see the Neurotransmitter page and Food Allergy page for more information.
Spirulina and other blue green algae sources are somewhat starchy so may not be suitable for someone on a GAPS or SCD diet.
There is no such thing as organic Spirulina in the technical sense. Spirulina is a water-based crop. In land-based agriculture, the use of nitrates is considered to be non-organic, and is a source of pollution in run off as it encourages algael blooms (non-edible!) and deoxygenation of the water, which is deadly for fish when severe deoxygenation occurs. Spirulina is nitrogen-based and chlorella is oxygen-based. Spirulina requires nitrogen to grow and reproduce in the pond farms. Nitrates are used as 'food' for the Spirulina ponds and the uptake is 100%. The fresh-water ponds themselves are self-contained and are not part of river systems. If nitrates were not used, the spirulina would grow extremely slowly. The normal 'organic' fertiliser or source of nitrogen is manure. Manure cannot be used in marine agriculture. It would contaminate the spirulina and would require extensive cleaning procedures to remove the manure from the spirulina, and it is debatable whether full decontamination would be possible. Buying 'organic' spirulina is very much a philosophical affair, and many brands have been forced for legislative reasons to stop using the term 'organic' to describe their spirulina.
Apart from Spirulina, there is one other edible source of blue green algae, known as Lake Klamath Blue Green Algae. This algae comes only from Lake Klamath, a crater lake in Oregon, USA. It is nitrogen-based also, and similar in composition to Spirulina, but not quite as nutritious. There are reports circulating that it is more susceptible to heavy metal contamination. Whether this is true or not is not certain, but given its slightly inferior nutritional value, it is probably best to stick with spirulina if you are going to consume a blue-green algae. I have heard reports that it tends to more of a known allergen than Spirulina for many people, and myself had an allergic response to blue-green algae product from Healthforce Nutritionals which I suspect was from Lake Klamath. One particular variety of Lake Klamath blue green alage is known as Aphanizomenon flos-aquae (or AFA for short). It is reputed to be more nutritious than other types of algae, however this does not appear to be the case compareing the ingredients. The mineral and vitamin levels, and also GLA levels are lower than Spirulina, but the Chlorophyll content and total protein content is slightly high. Without like for like figures of all nutritional factors, it is difficult to comment further. Both Spirulina and AFA seem to me to be good supplements. StemEnhance is a product that contains two nutrient extracts from AFA and is reputed to enhance the body's ability to produce stem cells. I have briefly tried this product whilst simultaneously taking larger amounts of spirulina and also green superfood mixtures (which had been ongoing for weeks previously), and did not particularly notice any difference, but this was perhaps not exactly a controlled experiment! Spirulina is also believed to promote stem cell proliferation in bone marrow in any case. Please see the Cardiac page for more information.
www.stemcellhealth4you.com The nutritional composition of AFA can be seen at the link below.
www.bluegreenfoods.com/breakdown.htm
back to top
Chlorella
Chlorella is shown above in tablet form. Chlorella can also be taken in powder form. Chlorella cells are shown in the picture below (under a microscope).
Chlorella is one of the oldest food sources on the planet. It is a green algae and with an extremely fibrous outer cell wall. It is often taken as an alimentary detoxification supplement, whereby heavy metals attach to the cell wall (see the Toxicity page for more information). It has the added benefit of being a source of fibre (it is the indigestible outer wall that binds with heavy metals so effectively) and a good source of nutrients. Approximately 75% of each cell is digestible, in the cracked cell form. When purchasing Chlorella, one should ensure one is purchasing cracked cell wall Chlorella. If not, then the Chlorella cannot be digested, because all the nutrients are inside the indigestible fibrous cell walls. Almost all reputable brands of Chlorella are however in the cracked cell wall form. Although all foods containing chlorophyll are reputed to aid with detoxification (i.e. green coloured vegetables or food sources), Chlorella is far superior when it comes to heavy metal detoxification of the alimentary canal. It however is not as effective as Bentonite clay in this purpose.
A nutritional composition of Yaeyama (Japanese) Chlorella can be sen at the link below.
www.chlorella-africa.com/chlorellacomp.html
It should be noted that whilst Chlorella provides many health benefits, it does contain a not insignificant amount of Aspartic Acid (5.2%) and Glutamic Acid (6.7%) which are both excitatory amino acids (neurotransmitters) in the nervous system. However, these are not in the form of free amino acids, so should not pose a particular problem. Also, the amounts of Chlorella consumed is relatively now in most circumstances, so the actual dry weight of these amino acids is likely to be quite low. Excessive consumption may result in elevated Aspartate and Glutamate levels in the body, which if it occurs, should be responded to by cutting down on Glutamate and Aspartate rich foods and Taurine and GABA supplementation. Please see the Neurotransmitter page and Food Allergy page for more information.
0.5 to 1.5g is probably more than enough as a daily Chlorella dosage. This may vary depending on your detoxification schedule. Chlorella, as other algae supplements, is best taken on an empty stomach, 30 minutes before each meal. This allows the chlorella to mix with the bile in the intestines and remove some of the toxins from it. There is no reason why you cannot of course eat chlorella any time of day, as it is a food source. The amount you take depends on what is right for you. Pay attention to your body.
Algae is also alkaline in nature, and it is helpful to take additional betaine HCl tablets with your chlorella so that your (probably very low levels of) stomach acid is not neutralised (generally 500-700mg of Betaine HCl per heaped teaspoon of Chlorella). If you do take large amounts of Chlorella without any Betaine HCl, you may notice that you produce more pungent wind than usual (which is a sign of poor protein digestion, which is in turn a side effect of less/neutralised stomach acid). Chlorella, as with all other types of algae, has a cold energy (c/f Traditional Chinese Medicine theory) and consuming large amounts may make the person unwell (this depends very much of course on the energetic state of the individual). It may be best to kill parasites and candida first before taking algae supplements, on account of food allergies resulting from foreign organism overgrowth, but this varies according to individual. Algae supplements are ideally taken 30 minutes before a meal. Candida may cause food allergies making a person sensitive to certain foods/supplements.
Chlorella pyrenoidosa is more nutritious and probably a better absorbant than chlorella vulgaris, the latter being the most common type of chlorella. If you purchase chlorella, make sure you know which species you are buying. It is probably best to try smaller quantities of various brands from local suppliers and to see which one agrees with you best, then bulk buy your favourite. It is recommended to stick with a high quality brand, as low quality brands can often contain high levels of heavy metals. Earthrise Chlorella is a well respected supplier of Chlorella Vulgaris, as are brands such as Jarrow's Japanese Yaeyama Chlorella. Nature's Balance Chlorella is Chlorella pyrenoidosa, as is the UK brand Optimum Source (which I suspect comes from China although it does not state the origin on the label).
Some purists maintain that one should not buy pyrenoidosa except the form grown in glass tubes because of the risk of contamination of outdoor grown sources.
Please see the links page for a list of suppliers and distributors, where you can also find nutritional composition charts if you would like to compare.
back to top
Spirulina vs Chlorella:
Cynics criticise Spirulina and Chlorella as very expensive types of food which is less nutritious than other water-based food sources like seaweed. Whilst this may be true to a certain extent, as the levels of vitamins and minerals in both types of algae are very low, except for vitamin B12, Beta Carotene and Iron, they are simply excellent sources of protein and fatty acids. NASA have conducted trials in spirulina growth and regard it as an ideal food source for long term space flight and space habitation. Chlorella has been heavily researched by the Rockerfeller Foundation and Carnegie Institute, and is taken by approximately 30% of the population of Japan. Although chlorella is much more detoxifying than spirulina, some people find that spirulina agrees much better with them than chlorella, which has a somewhat 'colder' property. However, this is very much dependent on the individual. A kinesiologist should be able to determine which is better for you if you have not figured it out yourself by sensing which feels better to eat and digest.
I personally do not care much for the taste of Chlorella, but takes it on occasion (in tablet form) to neutralise too much Betaine HCl intake, or when taken in conjunction with Cilantro, as an absorbant, for detoxification purposes. In general, I take a half teaspoon of Spirulina powder every morning or before every meal with a little water - sometimes with a protein supplement such as Garden of Life Raw Meal.
It should be noted that the levels of beta-carotene in Spirulina are approximately 10 times higher than those in Chlorella. As such, approximately 1-2g of Spirulina is sufficient to provide 100% RDA of Vitamin A. Prolonged intake of large amounts of spirulina may result in the patient's skin taking on a slightly orange tinge, in the face or the hands. This is the same effect as eating an excessive number of carrots each day. It's not a problem, but if this does occur, cut down on your dosage and discuss this with your consultant. This is less of an issue with Chlorella. The exact nutritional content of spirulina varies according to the variety. Spirulina contains large amounts of Beta Carotine and Vitamin B12 (probably good for vegetarians and vegans), and some Iron, but the other nutrient sources are very low, and often exaggerated. Please see below the nutritional composition of NOW's Spirulina, as an example. The Calcium and GLA content is clearly very low.
http://www.nowfoods.com/index.php?action=itemdetail&item_id=15168
Comparing the Essential Fatty Acid (EFA) content of Spirulina and Chlorella, it appears that Chlorella contains approximately 9% unsaturated fatty acids (presumably GLA?) whereas Spirulina only contains approximately 1% unsaturated fatty acids in the form of GLA. Even so, if one takes a couple of grams of Chlorella a day (not an insignificant amount), the relative Omega 6 intake is still relatively low.
Chlorella is probably a better detoxifier of the digestive tract, on account of its fibrous outer shell, whereas Spirulina is more nutritious and a better scavenger of rogue oxidant molecules like Peroxynitrite. Both have significant amounts of Aspartic Acid and Glutamic Acid, both of which have an excitatory effect on the nervous system, but the concentration is approximately double in Spirulina compared with Chlorella. However, the amounts of these types of Algae consumed are relatively now in most circumstances, so the actual dry weight of these amino acids is likely to be quite low. They are also not free amino acids, but bound up in proteins.
back to top
Other 'Superfoods'
Alternative green 'superfoods' and green foods also include cereal grasses such as wheat grass and barley grass, and also kelp and seaweed.
Seaweed makes for a good, tasty vegetable side dish, but can be rather costly. Bladderwrack is sometimes found in some detoxification products, e.g. Renew Life's Heavy Metal Cleanse. Sea vegetables tend to be very rich in iodine, which can be useful for those suffering from hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid gland).
Cereal grass powders are rich in protein, but not as much as algae sources (20-30% vs 50-70%). I am uncertain of the exact relative composition of Aspartic Acid and Glutamic acid as this information is rather hard to come by, but as the protein content is much lower than the algae species mentioned above, this is unlikely to be an issue. There are no free amino acids in cereal grasses, as they are bound up in proteins. Cereal grasses are rich in Beta Carotene, Vitamin C, Iron, and aso contain SOD, Transhydrogenase, Cytochrome oxidase and Tocopherols. Fibre can vary from 20-40% content and carbohydrate content is approximately 40% of dry weight. Barley Grass and Wheat Grass have distinct tastes, so you may prefer one over the other. You can buy cereal grass juice powder or grow your own. If you buy it in powder form, be aware that it is possible that it contains traces of wheat or barley grains, bran or germ, being processed from these plants, so if you are Gluten/Gliaidin intolerant it may pose a potential problem (although the quantities of contaminants are likely to be very low). Please see the link below for tips on how to grow it.
Be aware that you can buy cereal grass powder or cereal grass juice powder - they are not the same thing. The powder contains more fibre whereas the juice powder is more like what would be produced from a wheatgrass juicer (albeit in dried form) - however it would have a higher glycaemic index. Cereal grass juice powders are high in protein, vitamins and minerals and contain moderate levels of naturally occurring sugars.
www.happyjuicer.com/growing-wheatgrass-guide.asp
According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Barley Grass can be helpful for nourishing Spleen Qi, and Wheat Grass is a Kidney Yin tonic.
Overall, those who suffer from allergies tend to become allergic very quickly to cereal grasses compared with algae sources, particularly if it is consumed neat and not mixed with other food sources.
A variety of green superfood mixtures (freeze dried powders) are available, containing a variety of different green plant sources, including algae and sprouted seeds. It is best to buy organic. One example is shown above (natural Factors' Enriching Greens Powder (with Herbal Phytosomes)). Others include Garden of Life Perfect Food (Raw), Amazing Grass GREEN SuperFood, Ben Kim's Greens and Dr SchulzeÕs SuperFood Plus. The latter product (SuperFood Plus) is the only one of these examples cited to contain greens free from significant amounts of natural endocrine disrupting compounds. The amount of such compounds in the other formulas is probably quite low but is still worth noting. It may however be balanced with adaptogenic herbs, so it is worth reviewing the ingredients carefully before purchase. Please see the Endocrine System Disrupting Foods section below for more information. Those containing adaptogenic herbs may interfere with one's sleep pattern if taken too late in the evening. Such supplements are however normally taken in the morning. I have not personally tried Dr Schulze's SuperFood Plus as yet. I like all the other greens formulas mentioned above that I have tried, with the exception of Ben Kim's Greens, which is on paper a technically superior product, rich in greens with no bean shoots etc to 'dilute' down the greens content - however it does not taste very good and feels like it has a very 'cold' energy component compared with the others - to the extent that it does not feel so good after taking it. I got on really well with it at first, but after a week couldn't take it any more.
Andrew Lessman's Green Foods Complex is a mixture of spirulina, blue-green algae (Lake Klamath presumably), Chlorella, Barley Grass and Wheat Grass, in tablet form. One could also simply buy in bulk tubs of Spirulina, Chlorella and cereal grasses, and perhaps other ingredients, and mix them together oneself, which would be somewhat cheaper than a ready made green superfood supplement. More green superfood supplements can be seen on the links page and also in the Probiotics section of the Nutritional Deficiencies page.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrilla
Hydrilla verticillata is an rooted, fresh water, aquatic plant. It is particularly rich in Calcium, Iron, Cobalt, Thiamin (B1), B6, B12, and Beta Carotene. It contains slightly less chlorophyll and GLA than Spirulina. If you can find it and eat it, great, but it can be purchased in dried form. It is however slightly more expensive weight for weight than cereal grasses and algae.
Whilst cereal grasses can be grown organically and in controlled conditions (or not!), seaweed and phytoplankton may be susceptible to oceanic environment pollution, and some sources may contain very low levels of heavy metals. It is unlikely however that the average person will be eating seaweed regularly for example, any more than he eats, say, fish. The potential for heavy metals is probably greater the higher one goes up the food chain (i.e. fish). Seaweed, e.g. kelp, in any case contains significant levels of iodine and one may not wish to overdo it. Iodine is often an important anion to assist in stimulating thyroid function. Another source of dietary iodine is kelp extract tablets. Seaweeds tend to be high in Free Glutamate, including Kelp, but the amounts consumed are relatively low.
None of these green foods and superfoods however contain the levels of protein and other nutrients that spirulina and chlorella do, however, mixtures may indeed provide a good cross section of nutritional content. These foods also have a cold energy component, especially cereal grasses and phytoplankton, and should really be tested kinesiologically first before starting supplementation with these. One can also purchase a few different brands of green superfoods and alternate on different days with each one. Or have one's practitioner muscle test a few different varieties and see which works best for you at a particular point in time. One should also be able to taste it and feel when one's body has 'had enough' of that particular type, and move onto something else or discontinue for a while. As a general rule, spirulina and chlorella are far superior to cereal grasses. If your body is agreeable to cereal grasses and phytoplankton, there is no reason why you cannot take these in small doses along with chlorella or spirulina.
back to top
Other Sources of Protein:
Rice Protein based mixtures:
http://www.thorne.com/Products/Gastrointestinal-Health/General_GI_Support/prd~SP640.jsp
There is an alternative version, called MediClear Plus, which is basically the same, except that it also contains the flavanoids (liver antioxidants) Curcumin (root) and Grape Seed extract, mixed with Phosphatidyl Choline. Mediclear Plus probably does not taste as good, the the Curcumin gives it a Turmeric (curry) taste, but it does have the added advantage of not containing pure cane molasses (i.e. sucrose) nor Natural Vanilla Flavouring (see the Nitric Oxide page for information about Vanilloid Receptor over-stimulation). I was tested kinesiologically on both products and found the MediClear to test positively but the MediClear Plus to be not wanted. In addition, I noticed some allergic symptoms with MediClear Plus, which might be attributable to the rice protein (found in both), but perhaps some of the additional herbs used.
Neither of the above are likely to be very alkalising.
http://www.gardenoflife.com
http://www.gojuvo.com/ingredients.php
Soy Protein based powders:
Pea Protein powder
http://www.olympianlabs.com/products/details/pea-protein.html
This is not a pea protein isolate but contains pea protein concentrate, and contains only 1g of fat and 1g of carbohydrate per 18g serving. No other added ingredients.
http://www.sourcenaturals.com/products/GP2258/
Hemp Protein Powder:
http://www.jarrow.com/product/471/Hemp_Protein
Beef Protein:
http://www.olympianlabs.com/products/details/beef-protein.html
Marine Phytoplankton:
I have tried Marine Phytoplankton product by UMAC-CORE. It contains a proprietary blend of the following three species - Skeletonema costatum, Thalassiosira aestivalis and Thalassiosira nordenskioeldii. This blend is called Alpha-3 Concentrated Marine Phytoplankton (Alpha-3 CMP). Marine phytoplankton contains over 65 identified nutritional compounds including all amino acids, Essential Fatty Acids, vitamins, key minerals and trace elements, rare anti-oxidants, phospholipids, electrolytes, nucleic acids, enzymes and co-enzymes. It is clearly lower in chlorophyll than the algae species and cereal grasses as it is cream in colour and not green. But it is a good supplemental amino acid source. There are various other Marine Phytoplankton products on the market. I did not notice any particular difference whilst testing the product although that is not to say it was bad, and he was taking cereal grasses and algae at the same time as well anyway.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phytoplankton
I do not have exact figures for Phytoplankton, but he understands that the Aspartic and Glutammic acid content is relative high, which may be an issue if eaten in large quantities (highly unlikely considering the cost!)
Bee Pollen:
Bee Pollen is another alkaline forming, protein-rich 'superfood'. It consists of up to 40% protein, half of which is in the form of free amino acids (including Glutamate). It is therefore sensible to only consume small amounts at a time if one is going to do so, so that one does not consume too much Free Glutamate. Bee Pollen is rich in antioxidants, minerals and enzymes.
www.fitday.com/WebFit/nutrition/All_Foods/Meat_Beef_Pork_Misc_/Bee_pollen.html
www.alternativescentral.com/beepollen.htm
www.buzzle.com/articles/bee-pollen-nutrition-facts.html
back to top
Protein Function and Amino Acid Conversion:
back to top
General:
What is an amino acid? It is a molecule consisting of an amine group and a carboxlic acid group.
Phenylalanine is shown above an amino acid with an aromatic phenyl group (the carbon 'benzene' ring).
Amino acids are the most primary molecular building blocks of complex proteins, in practical terms - without splitting them into individual carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen atoms etc. In the digestive tract, proteins are broken down (hopefully) into their constituent amino acids with the action of stomach acid and digestive enzymes, and the actual conversion of amino acids from one form to another occurs in the cells of the body with the action of a variety of specialised enzymes. Both areas are of critical importance to ensure correct utilisation of amino acids in the body.
back to top
Categories of Amino Acid:
There are broadly speaking three categories of Amino Acids. Those Amino Acids that are required by the body in order to function properly and that cannot be synthesised by the body (converted enzymatically from other amino acids or groups of compounds) at all or quickly enough and in sufficient quantities are classed as (Nutritionally) Essential Amino Acids. These include 'branch chain' amino acids, a.k.a. BCAAs, that have non-aromatic (aliphatic) side chains (marked with a '+' below). Those amino acids that can be synthesised by the body in sufficient quantities and quickly enough under normal circumstances, and are classed as Nonessential Amino Acids. Semi-Essential (or Conditionally Essential) Amino Acids are required from dietary sources under special circumstances.
Despite the names, it is of critical importance for Semi-Essential and Non-Essential Amino Acids to be made available (in the right quantities and at the right time) in the body for proper biochemical functioning to occur. Both Essential and Semi-Essential Amino Acids can be derived from nutritous dietary sources, but in special cases, either because of digestive problems or specific enzymatic conversion pathways being impeded, supplementation may be required of a special amino acid or acids from any of all of the three groups to alleviate a deficiency/imbalance.
Essential Amino Acids:
- Isoleucine+
- Leucine+
- Lysine
- Methionine
- Phenylalanine
- Taurine
- Threonine
- Tryptophan
- Valine+
Semi-Essential Amino Acids:
- Arginine*
- Histidine*
Non-Essential Amino Acids:
- Alanine
- Asparagine
- Aspartic Acid
- Cysteine*
- Cystine
- Glutamic Acid
- Glutamine*
- Glycine*
- Proline*
- Serine*
- Tyrosine*
The definitions above are those cited by Genova Diagnostics. The definitions of Semi-Essential and Non-Essential are not always fully agreed upon. Cysteine, taurine, tyrosine, histidine and arginine are regarded as Semi-Essential Amino Acids in children, because the metabolic pathways that synthesize these amino acids are not fully developed. Wikipedia classes those amino acids marked with a '*' as being Semi/Conditionally Essential.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid
www.aminoacidpower.com/aboutAmino/Tour
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/130/7/1835S
http://jn.nutrition.org/cgi/content/full/134/6/1558S
Amino acids join together through joining the amino (nitrogen) group on one amino acid molecule with the carboxylic (acidic carbon) group of another amino acid molecule. This is known as an amide bond and is a form of polymerisation. This occurs through RNA or enzyme initiated activity in the body. Amino acids join in this manner to form short peptide chains or longer polypeptide chains. Polypeptides are also known as proteins.
Clearly there are many different types of amino acid, different in structure, number of carbon atoms, and configuration (isomers, single chain or branch chain (i.e. main chain and branch chain placement and length)). Optical isomers (mirror image molecules with the same number of atoms in them but which are not identical (e.g. a mirror reflection of you), can exist in two forms, 'D' or 'L'. The letter prefixes the amino acid name (e.g. L-Glutamine). 'L' describes the vast majority of amino acids found in proteins and sometimes the L nomenclature is dropped (considered superfluous). The exact structure of an amino acid determines its properties and characteristics, including its hydrophilic or lipophilic properties. Some amino acids and peptides are capable of crossing the blood brain barrier whereas other are not. This is why certain peptides (and 'nano-particles') in certain detoxification products and herbs are ablet o cross the blood brain barrier and provide effective chelation of heavy metals from the brain cells.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_brain_barrier
back to top
Proteins and Protein Structures:
As well as the huge variety of individual amino acids, there is also a huge variety of protein structures that can be created by them, a little like words that can be created out of letters in the alphabet. Amino acids then are the basic building block of life, and without their existence, no (terrestrial carbon-based) life forms could exist.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amino_acid
There are number different types of protein in the body, and they are not just used for the making up cell membranes (e.g. to form muscle, skin and the organs), i.e. structural proteins. Cell membranes are made up of lipids as well as protein. This is why it is important that sufficient Essential Fatty Acids and the right ratios, and also quality sources of protein are consumed; and also why it is important to keep these cell membranes free of toxins.
Other uses for proteins in the body include the formation of enzymes (digestive, immune system, anti-inflammatory and detoxification enzymes), hormones (chemicals that allow one cell to communicate to another and control its metabolism), neurotransmitters (chemicals that allow a neuron (in the nervous system) to signal a cell or cells), antibodies, blood transport proteins, etc.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hormones
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurotransmitter
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuron
Please see the Mitochondrial Dysfunction page for more information on the role of L-Carnitine in ATP transport and cellular energy production.
Quoting from Wikipedia regarding the functions of proteins:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protein
'Proteins are the chief actors within the cell, said to be carrying out the duties specified by the information encoded in genes. With the exception of certain types of RNA, most other biological molecules are relatively inert elements upon which proteins act....
The chief characteristic of proteins that allows their diverse set of functions is their ability to bind other molecules specifically and tightly. The region of the protein responsible for binding another molecule is known as the binding site and is often a depression or "pocket" on the molecular surface. This binding ability is mediated by the tertiary structure of the protein, which defines the binding site pocket, and by the chemical properties of the surrounding amino acids' side chains. Protein binding can be extraordinarily tight and specific...
Proteins can bind to other proteins as well as to small-molecule substrates. When proteins bind specifically to other copies of the same molecule, they can oligomerize to form fibrils; this process occurs often in structural proteins that consist of globular monomers that self-associate to form rigid fibers. Protein-protein interactions also regulate enzymatic activity, control progression through the cell cycle, and allow the assembly of large protein complexes that carry out many closely related reactions with a common biological function. Proteins can also bind to, or even be integrated into, cell membranes. The ability of binding partners to induce conformational changes in proteins allows the construction of enormously complex signaling networks.
The best-known role of proteins in the cell is as enzymes, which catalyze chemical reactions. Enzymes are usually highly specific and accelerate only one or a few chemical reactions. Enzymes carry out most of the reactions involved in metabolism, as well as manipulating DNA in processes such as DNA replication, DNA repair, and transcription. Some enzymes act on other proteins to add or remove chemical groups in a process known as post-translational modification. About 4,000 reactions are known to be catalyzed by enzymes. The rate acceleration conferred by enzymatic catalysis is often enormous - as much as 1017-fold increase in rate over the uncatalyzed reaction in the case of orotate decarboxylase (78 million years without the enzyme, 18 milliseconds with the enzyme).
The molecules bound and acted upon by enzymes are called substrates. Although enzymes can consist of hundreds of amino acids, it is usually only a small fraction of the residues that come in contact with the substrate, and an even smaller fraction - 3-4 residues on average - that are directly involved in catalysis. The region of the enzyme that binds the substrate and contains the catalytic residues is known as the active site.
Many proteins are involved in the process of cell signaling and signal transduction. Some proteins, such as insulin, are extracellular proteins that transmit a signal from the cell in which they were synthesized to other cells in distant tissues. Others are membrane proteins that act as receptors whose main function is to bind a signaling molecule and induce a biochemical response in the cell. Many receptors have a binding site exposed on the cell surface and an effector domain within the cell, which may have enzymatic activity or may undergo a conformational change detected by other proteins within the cell.
Antibodies are protein components of adaptive immune system whose main function is to bind antigens, or foreign substances in the body, and target them for destruction. Antibodies can be secreted into the extracellular environment or anchored in the membranes of specialized B cells known as plasma cells. Whereas enzymes are limited in their binding affinity for their substrates by the necessity of conducting their reaction, antibodies have no such constraints. An antibody's binding affinity to its target is extraordinarily high.
Many ligand transport proteins bind particular small biomolecules and transport them to other locations in the body of a multicellular organism. These proteins must have a high binding affinity when their ligand is present in high concentrations, but must also release the ligand when it is present at low concentrations in the target tissues. The canonical example of a ligand-binding protein is haemoglobin, which transports oxygen from the lungs to other organs and tissues in all vertebrates and has close homologs in every biological kingdom.
Transmembrane proteins can also serve as ligand transport proteins that alter the permeability of the cell membrane to small molecules and ions. The membrane alone has a hydrophobic core through which polar or charged molecules cannot diffuse. Membrane proteins contain internal channels that allow such molecules to enter and exit the cell. Many ion channel proteins are specialized to select for only a particular ion; for example, potassium and sodium channels often discriminate for only one of the two ions.
Structural proteins confer stiffness and rigidity to otherwise-fluid biological components. Most structural proteins are fibrous proteins; for example, actin and tubulin are globular and soluble as monomers, but polymerize to form long, stiff fibers that comprise the cytoskeleton, which allows the cell to maintain its shape and size. Collagen and elastin are critical components of connective tissue such as cartilage, and keratin is found in hard or filamentous structures such as hair, nails, feathers, hooves, and some animal shells.
Other proteins that serve structural functions are motor proteins such as myosin, kinesin, and dynein, which are capable of generating mechanical forces. These proteins are crucial for cellular motility of single celled organisms and the sperm of many sexually reproducing multicellular organisms. They also generate the forces exerted by contracting muscles.'
back to top
Amino Acid Conversion & Protein Formation Bottlenecks:
As has been illustrated above, the ability to form proteins is critical to the functioning of the body and life itself. Protein formation is often impaired in CFS cases. Protein formation is itself dependent on many factors, but most importantly, the supply of amino acids into the body. These are supplied by the digestive tract and digestive enzymes and stomach acid, which act to break down the plant and animal proteins in the food that we eat into amino acids, and hopefully allow sufficient quantities to be absorbed into the blood stream for polymerisation and conversion into specific amino acids and peptide chains for various functional proteins and structural in the body. Digestion then is the first step in protein and amino acid conversio.
A blockage or bottleneck in the ability to convert one type of amino acid to another can result in elevated levels of the precursor amino acid and very low levels of the converted amino acid. Elevated levels of the precursor amino acid may well have biochemical effects on the body, and indeed the low levels of the converted amino acid are also likely to have significant effects on a particular process or pathway in the body. Amino acids are converted from one form to another, and joined together to form specific peptides and polypeptides. If one type of amino acid is low, then all downstream amino acids and peptides that rely on this 'precursor' are going to suffer or rather be considerably compromised/slowed down in their synthesis with signficant and specific effects. Digestive impairment can lead to a 'Catch 22' situation (affecting enzyme production and metabolic signalling, which affects digestive capability etc.) unless we do something to reverse this cycle. Clearly this can create quite a complex picture. An example of one such problem is that of methylation and glutathione production, examined in the next section on this page.
The amino acids which are too high or too low can be determined by a variety of methods, either a blood test or a urine test (e.g. Amino Acid Profile). Please see the Identification page for more information. The importance of such tests should not be under-estimated. They may point to what nutritional elements (e.g. minerals or vitamins) are missing from the diet or have been too low for low long, resulting in a severe amino acid imbalance in the body, or which specific amino acids can perhaps be supplemented for a brief period to considerably assist in one's recovery. As discussed on the Digestion page, certain readily assimilable and high quality protein sources may also help in this regard.
Please see Mineral Deficiencies section for more information on digestive problems, nutrient malabsorption and their effect on amino acid utilisation.
Below are a number of amino acid case studies.
back to top
Taurine:
Taurine, a.k.a. 2-aminoethanesulfonic acid is an organic acid which is synergistic with magnesium delivery to the body's cells. Taurine is an ion and pH buffer in the heart, muscles and central nervous system. It is also a major constituent of bile. It is also a powerful antioxidant and antitoxin, particularly important to the liver and immune system. Taurine is also classified as a 'semi-essential nutrient'. It is bio-synthesised from the amino acid Cysteine as an end product of Cysteine metabolism. It is not involved in protein formation but has a variety of biochemical functions in the body. As stated above, studies have shown that taurine levels in vegans are frequently significantly lower than in those eating meat and dairy products. Taurine also acts as a calming neurotransmitter, in a similar way to GABA, to balance the excitatory (excitotoxin) pathways of Aspartate and Glutamate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taurine
www.vitamins-supplements.org/amino-acids/taurine.php
'Taurine is a nonessential amino acid, which means that it is manufactured from other amino acids in the liver. Taurine is found mostly in meat and fish. Good sources of taurine include brewer's yeast [high in Glutamate], eggs and other dairy products, fish and red meat.'
Taurine is found in certain energy drinks (as an additive), which are otherwise quite bad for you, as they are highly acidic, and usually extremely high in caffeine.
If elevated Taurine levels are detected in the urine, there may be two possible causes, either an excess dietary intake or heavy supplementation; and/or urinary wasting of Taurine by the kidneys due to poor renal conservation. Urinary wasting can be secondary to a generally increased level of renal clearance or nephrotic syndromes (where the kidneys are damaged and leaking large amount of protein into the urine). Wasting of Taurine can also occur when the similarly-structured amino acid beta-alanine is elevated (e.g. bacterial dysbiosis) or is present in the kidney tubules. In cases of Molybdenum deficiency or sulphite oxidase enzyme impairment, elevated urine taurine can result as an emergency method of sulphur excretion.
Renal wasting of Taurine can be medically significant if it affects one of more of Taurine's various important functions, listed below.
- Sparing of Magnesium throughout the body. Urinary Magnesium wasting can result from a taurine deficiency, which is why it is very important to maintain sufficient taurine levels in the body. High taurine levels in the urine may indicate severe taurine wasting in the body, strongly suggesting the requirement for additional dietary or supplemental taurine in order to replenish the wasted taurine, in order to protect Magnesium levels in the cells, which is a metal element that is critical to so many enzymatic reactions in the body. Magnesium deficiency may result in fatigue, depression, muscle tremors and hypertension (high blood pressure).
- Antioxidant and immune system functions. Taurine scavenges excess hypochlorite (OCl-) ions within leukocytes, and also facilitates effective phagocytosis by enhancing the survival rate of leukocytes. Taurine deficiency may lead to increased inflammatory response to toxins, foreign proteins (in the blood, not other amino acids) and xenobiotic chemicals (i.e. of external origin) including aldehydes, alcohols, amines, petroleum solvents and chlorine or chlorite (bleach).
- Neurotransmitter functions. Taurine strongly influences neuronal concentrations and activities of GABA and Glutamic Acid. Taurine can also have anti-convulsant and anti-epileptic effects.
- Conjugation of cholesterol (as cholyl-coenzyme A) to form taurocholic acid, an important constituent of bile and a major use of cholesterol.
- Mediation of the flux of electrolyte elements at the plasma membrane of bodily cells. Deficiency in taurine may result in increased cellular Calcium and Sodium levels and reduced Magnesium levels.
- Increased resistance to aggregation of blood platelets and decreased thromboxane release if aggregation does take place.
Pathologies attributed to taurine deficiency in the cells include billiary insufficiency, fat malabsorption (steatorrhea), cardiac arrhythmia, congestive heart failure, poor vision, retinal degeneration, granulomatous disorder of neutrophils, immune system dysfunction, enhanced inflammatory response to xenobiotics (toxins of foreign origin), convulsions and also seizures.
Taurine excess in the tissues is an uncommon condition (hypertrauinuria with hypertaurinemia) is usually a result of insufficient sulphite oxidase enzyme activity, perhaps on account of molybdenum deficiency. It may also be a result of increased levels of beta-alanine in the urine (renal clearance). Increased levels of urinary sulphites and decreased levels of sulphates are observed in the urine. If molybdenum levels are too low, then uric acid levels are also reduced, xanthine levels are elevated and aldehyde detoxification is impaired (i.e. aldehyde intolerance).
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
Low tissue taurine levels and low Magnesium tissue levels are often observed in CFS, ME and Fibromyalgia patients. Many good magnesium supplements contain Taurine (such as Ultra Muscleze). L-Methionine is a precursor to Taurine which may also be taken to assist in nutrient assimilation. However, no amino acid supplementation should be undertaken without guidance from a qualified practitioner and a urine test (amino acid analysis profile).
back to top
Cysteine and Cystine:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystine
Cysteine is the chemically reduced and biologically active form of Cystine. Cysteine is a precursor to Glutathione, Glutathione containing Cysteine. Cysteine is considered to be the limiting amino acid for the formation of Glutathione, which is required for organ and tissue detoxification and as a major endogenous antioxidant. Sulphur-based detoxification via sulphation (sulfation in the USA!) also starts with Cysteine as the primary source of sulphur.
Cysteine is produced from the amino acid Methionine during a process known as Methylation, which converts Methionine into Homocysteine, into Cysteine. Please see the Homocysteine section below for more information about Methionine and Glutatione, and also the Inefficient Liver Function page.
Cysteine and Cystine are derived from dietary protein sources:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cysteine#Dietary_sources
'Cysteine is found in most high-protein foods, including:
- Animal sources: pork, sausage meat, chicken, turkey, duck, luncheon meat, eggs, milk, whey protein, ricotta, cottage cheese, yogurt
- Vegan sources: red peppers, garlic, onions, broccoli, brussels sprouts, oats, granola, wheat germ'
Cysteine is also formed in the cells from the essential amino acid Methionine, with the cofactor Vitamin B6. Cysteine deficiency may be secondary to dietary protein insufficiency, gastrointestinal dysfunctions, methionine insufficiency, impaired methionine metabolism/conversion, urinary wasting of Cystine (Cystinuria), and urinary wasting of Taurine. Taurine is a metabolite of Cysteine, and both are created by the body from Methionine. Cysteine deficiency can lead to a reduced ability to detoxify (i.e. a Glutathione deficiency), chemical or xenobiotic (external chemical) intolerances, oxidative stress and increased inflammatory responses. Low cysteine levels or a Cysteine to Cystine ratio of less than 0.75 is synonymous with oxidative stress.
Sufficient Cysteine levels are important to maintain liver function, protect the liver, maintain glutathione production and to help prevent undue oxidative stress.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystine
Cystine is the oxidised or dimer form of Cysteine. It is essentially two Cysteine molecules linked together with a Sulphur-Sulphur (S-S) bond. In the form of Cysteine, as mentioned above, it is a protein amino acid and a key component of Glutathione, CoEnzyme A, various enzymes and also insulin. Cystine is found in meat, eggs, milk products and whole grains. Cystine is the extracellular form of Cysteine. Cystine deficiency is synonymous with protein malnutrition, gastrointestinal dysfunctions (absorption/digestion problems) or the impaired metabolism of Methionine.
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
www.vitaminstuff.com/amino-acid-cystine.html
'Cysteine is more easily absorbed by the body than cystine, so most supplements contain cysteine rather than cystine [e.g. L-Cysteine, N-Acetyl-Cysteine (NAC)]. In addition, too much cystine in the body can cause cystinosis, a rare disease that can cause cystine crystals to form in the body and produce bladder or kidney stones. This side effect has not been associated with cysteine; however...cysteine is unstable, and is often converted to cystine in the body. To avoid the conversion of cysteine to potentially harmful amounts of cystine, it is advised that you take vitamin C supplements or consume citrus fruits along with cysteine supplements. Cystine cannot be used by the body without adequate amounts of vitamin B6, vitamin B12, and folic acid, so you'll want to make sure you get the right amount of these supplements as well.'
www.ithyroid.com/goitrogens.htm
Copper and Iron play an important role in thyroid functioning, and excessive levels of dietary sulphur (e.g. Cysteine or MSM) may inhibit the uptake of Copper and Iron, potentially causing hypothyroidism.
A document 'Treatment Options for Mercury/Metal Toxicity in Autism and Related Developmental Disabilities: Consensus Position Paper February 2005' by the Autism Research Institute, claims that both Cysteine and N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine (NAC) can bind with mercury and carry it across to other tissues, allegedly toxifying the body further (although clearly this depends on where the Mercury was and where it is going to!); and also that these amino acids are readily consumed by various yeast species and taking too much can result in the exacerbation of yeast infections. Clearly Cysteine is required by the body and a dietary intake of Cysteine within the normal range is a important to ensure sufficient Glutathione production for detoxification purposes. The document discusses Cysteine and NAC on pages 19-20, and can be read by clicking on the link below.
http://www.autism.com/pdf/providers/heavymetals.pdf
Please see the Endocrine disrupting foods section on the Digestive Disorders page.
back to top
Glutamine and Glutamic Acid
Glutamic acid is a non-essential amino acid that has an excitatory function of the nervous system. Glutamic acid is the acidic form of the salt Glutamate. Too much dietary intake however can result in neurological damage and neurotransmitter imbalance. Please see the Protein Food Additives section below for more information about Glutamate and Excitotoxins.
Isolated glutamic aciduria is consistent with the following conditions:
- Ingestion of excessive levels of monosodium glutamate (MSG) or free glumate containing foods [see below]
- Ingestion of nutritional supplements containing large amounts of glutamic acid
- Gout or pregout - in such instances, one would be advised to investigate uric acid levels in the blood or urine.
- Impaired or imbalanced purine metabolism
- Metabolic or renal acidosis
Provided no other conditions are present, Glutamic acid levels should normalise after discontinuing the first two items above (i.e. eliminating most or all dietary sources of Glutamic acid). The third and fourth conditions are usually best corrected with a low purine diet. Purine metabolism disorders are not very common, and differential diagnosis is difficult. In metabolic or renal acidosis, glutaminase in the kidneys forms glutamic acid and ammonia which becomes basic ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH). This is the body's normal pH balancing mechanism for balancing acidosis. Acidoses can feature an increased serum anion gap (ketoacidoses of diabetes or alcoholism or lactic acidoses of respiratory insufficiency, chemical toxicity, circulatory problems etc.) or may be hyperchloremic with normal anion gap (renal tubular acidosis, hypoaldosteronism, alkali-loss diarrhea) etc.
In a urine sample, the glutamine/glutamate ratio can indicate specimen decay. When aged or improperly preserved, urine glutamine decays to glutaic acid and ammonia. In metabolic acidosis some glutamine is transformed into glutamic acid and ammonium ion as a pH balancing mechanism. This may contribute to high ammonia levels in the blood or urine. As mentioned above, high glutamic acid levels occur in gout also. Thus, low glutamine/glutamate ratio may reflect decay, too high a dietary glutamate intake or it may be of metabolic origin. High glutamine/glutamate ratio is metabolic and does not reflect on specimen decay or representativeness.
An elevated ammonia urine concentration usually indicates overall decay of amino acids (i.e. is time dependent). An exception would be elevated ammonia concentration with hyperammonemia of metabolic or bacterial origin. A very low urine ammonia concentration suggests low urine nitrogen levels, which may occur in protein-deficient diets; blood amino acid levels may well be normal or slightly sub-normal.
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
Glutamine is used to produce both Glutamic Acid (Glutamate - the upregulating amino acid) and also GABA (down-regulating amino acid). Please see the Hormone and Neurotransmitter page for more information about GABA and Glutamate.
http://orthosz.blogspot.com/2006/12/glutamine-and-gaba.html
Glutamine is also a major building block of skeletal muscles, which are a major concentration of Glutamine in the body. Muscle injury recovery can be assisted by Glutamine supplementation. Glutamine is also a major constituent of the intestinal mucosal cells and Glutamine supplementation can help inflamed or damaged intestinal walls (i.e. Leaky Gut Syndrome). Glutamine also acts as a carbon donor, supporting protein synthesis and the rate of glycogen production.
www.lef.org/magazine/mag99/sep99-report3.html
"The synthesis of glutamine protects the body, and the brain in particular, from ammonia toxicity. In fact, the synthesis of glutamine from glutamate is the key pathway for detoxifying ammonia. Excess ammonia is a crucial factor in the development of neurodegenerative diseases, since ammonia interferes with the oxidative metabolism of neurons and thus reduces the production of ATP, our "energy molecule." In addition, ammonia gives rise to very harmful nitrogen-based free radicals."
"In the brain, glutamine is a substrate for the production of both excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters (glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid, popularly known as GABA). Glutamine is also an important source of energy for the nervous system. If the brain is not receiving enough glucose, it compensates by increasing glutamine metabolism for energy-hence the popular perception of glutamine as "brain food" and its use as a pick-me-up. Glutamine users often report more energy, less fatigue and better mood."
"Glutamine also plays a part in maintaining proper blood glucose levels and the right pH range. The body has an exquisite mechanism for maintaining pH homeostasis. If the pH of the blood is too acidic, more glutamine is directed to the kidneys, where a certain type of glutamine results in the release of bicarbonate ions to correct acidosis. If the pH is too alkaline, more glutamine is sent to the liver, where a different kind of metabolism releases hydrogen ions to correct alkalosis."
"And there is still more. Due to its dependence on sodium transport, glutamine is one of the amino acids that control the volume of water in the cells, and the osmotic pressure (osmoregulation) in various tissues. Glutamine also plays a vital part in the control of blood sugar. It helps prevent hypoglycemia , since it is easily converted to glucose when blood sugar is low. In addition, glutamine regulates the expression of certain genes, including those that govern certain protective enzymes, and helps regulate the biosynthesis of DNA and RNA. Recently it has been discovered that glutamine is important for the cardiovascular system as well."
"The glutamine cycle in the brain is simple and elegant. Glutamine readily crosses the blood-brain barrier. Neurons take up glutamine and convert it to glutamate or GABA (through the additional step of decarboxylating the glutamate). Some glutamate is used for energy, some for synthesis of glutathione and niacin, some as neurotransmitter. After either glutamate or GABA are released into the synaptic junction, the supportive cells called glia, with their high supply of glutamine synthase, take up the glutamate or GABA and resynthesize glutamine, detoxifying ammonia in the process. The glutamate that is not converted to glutamine is used by the glia as a source of energy, and also to produce energy nutrients alanine and alpha-ketoglutarate, which are then released to the neurons."
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glutamine#Dietary_sources
'Dietary sources of L-glutamine include beef, chicken, fish, eggs, milk, dairy products, wheat, cabbage, beets, beans, spinach, and parsley. Small amounts of free L-glutamine are also found in vegetable juices and fermented foods, such as miso [also high in Glutamate].'
According to Genova Diagnostics:
Pyroglutamic Acid (5-oxoproline) primariliy arises as a byproduct of the 'gamma-glutamyl cycle' which splits reduced glutathione (GSH) into cysteinylglycine and a gamma-glutamyl moiety. The gamma-glutamyl part attaches to another amino acid or short-chain peptide, or combines with an essential mineral element for transport across a membrane or into a cell. Uptake of such nutrients from the small intestine is primarily dependent on this process. The enzyme gamma-glutamylcyclotransferase completes the transport role by splitting off the constituent parts carried through and changing the gamma-glutamyl parrt into pyroglutamic acid. A deficiency in pyroglutamic acid may result from a deficiency of reduced glutathione (GSH), toxicity (causing a depletion of GSH), oxidative stress limiting the amount of the reduced form of glutathione (i.e. oxidising it), cellular magnesium deficiency which can limit the rate of endogenous GSH formation, and also a deficiency of Cysteine (as stated above, which is the bottle-neck in endogenous GSH formation). Symptoms of Pyroglutamic Acid deficiency include nutrient malabsorption, oxidative stress and/or toxicity.
back to top
Asparagine:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagine
Asparagine has various dietary sources, including vegetable protein foods such as soy, peanuts and other legumes. It can also be formed endogenously in the body from glutamine and aspartic acid. Endogenous formation of asparagine is Magnesium dependent and requires an energy-coupled ATP step to be manufactured by the body. Low urinary asparagine levels can be a result of poor renal clearance (i.e. inefficient kidney function), in which case one would expect 24 hour creatinine urine levels to be low and blood/tissue asparagine levels to be elevated (as it is not being cleared by the kidneys). Asparagine deficiency may be a result of a low protein diet in general, from a diet deficient in vegetable protein, from gastrointestinal dysfunction and poor absorption and uptake of amino acids, or it may be a result of a magnesium deficiency or dysfunction. Normal or elevated levels of aspartic acid and glutamine in conjunction with low asparagine levels are consistent with Magnesium dysfunction. Low asparagine levels may limit leukocyte numbers and function, and may thus contribute to immune system dysfunction.
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
A diet supplying 55g of protein provides approximately 4g of Asparagine, according to J.R. Carlson Laboratories (amino acid suppliers) - assuming protein digestion and absorption is functioning correctly.
One's recommended weight and daily protein intake can be calculated at the web site below.
www.indoorclimbing.com/Protein_Requirement.html
back to top
Beta-alanine:
Beta-alanine is often elevated when the dietary peptides anserine and carnosine are elevated because they contain beta-alanine. Beta-alanine is also a metabolite of the pyrimidine bases cytosine and uracil. Catabolism (breakdown) of damaged or diseased bodily tissue, tumors and malignancy feature increased production and urinary disposal of beta-alanine. Besides elevated anserine or carnosine and accelerated catabolism of unwanted bodily tissue, the next most likely source of beta-alanine in urine is imbalanced gut flora. The normal gut flora produce some beta-alanine, which they make pantothenic acid (vitamin B5) from. However, elevated levels of staphylococcus or streptococcus, use of antibiotics, and the breakdown of yeast or fungi in the body can cause an increase in urinary beta-alanine levels. Continuously elevated beta-alanine can be detrimental by impairing renal conservation of taurine.
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
back to top
Sarcosine:
Sarcosine, or N-methylglycine, is an intermediate of the choline-to-serine catabolism (breakdown) sequence, and the N-methyl derivative of glycine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcosine
'Sarcosine is ubiquitous in biological materials and is present in such foods as egg yolks, turkey, ham, vegetables, legumes, etc. Sarcosine is formed from dietary intake of choline and from the metabolism of methionine, and is rapidly degraded to glycine, which, in addition to its importance as a constituent of protein, plays a significant role in various physiological processes as a prime metabolic source of components of living cells such as glutathione, creatine, purines and serine.'
It is formed by the oxidative demethylation (i.e. removal of a methyl CH3 group) of dimethylglycine (DMG) and it is then catabolised by further demethylation. Elevated sarcosine levels (if observed) in the urine suggest three possibilities:
- Recent dietary supplementation of dimethylglycine (DMG)
- Deficiencies of the cofactors associated with sarcosine catabolism. These are active folate (Vitamin B9) as tetrahydrofolate (THF) and Active Vitamin B2 (as FAD) bound to the sarcosine dehydrogenase enzyme. They methyl group fragment removed from sarcosine is at the oxidative level ofCHO and can form formaldehyde if tetrahydrofolate (THF) is insufficient. This would slow down the catabolism of sarcosine whilst making it also somewhat toxic.
- Genetic weakness in sarcosine dehydrogenase with metabolic hypersarcosinuria and possibly hereditary hypersarcoseinemia. the latter is extremely rare with an incidence in 1 in every 40,000 infants born.
Unpublished clinical observations associate some cases of acquired, mild sarcosinuria with past exposures to organic chemical solvents and petrochemicals. At such levels sarcosine is not known to become toxic. However, folic acid supplementation is recommended whenver sarcosine is elevated.
Source: Genova Diagnostics Optimum Nutrition Evaluation. Please see the Tests page for more information.
back to top
Amino Acid Supplementation - General Principles:
Please note that amino acids can be taken in their acid format, or as amino acid salts of a nutritional metal. For example, if one wishes to take 'butyrate', then one can either take butyric acid or for example calcium and magnesium butyrate. If one takes a chelated mineral supplement (i.e. an amino acid salt), for example, magnesium citrate, then this may result in a large amounts of citrate being consumed. Intake of disproportionately large amounts of certain amino acids may have no ill effect on the amino acid balance and conversion processes that take place in the body. Others however may put the body into imbalance with respect to certain amino acids, and their precursors or the amino acids they are normally converted to. An amino acid analysis should highlight any problems that would be occurring in the body.
As discussed above, one can identify which amino acids are deficient in one's blood or urine, and then supplement these with the guidance of one's practitioner, to partially redress the balance and assist in the general process of increasing levels of downstream peptides, polypeptides, enzymes and hormones, which will (together with other therapies and nutrition sources) in turn assist in amino acid conversion, gradually remedying the problem. Clearly one cannot just do this cannot just do this on a whim, interpreting one's own amino acid test results and deciding for oneself what one should take, i.e. anything that seems low. As with balancing hormones, amino acids need to be taken in the right ratios and amounts to be effective. One needs to determine which aminos are in the normal range, which are too low, which are too high, and why; and what are the relative ratios of certain related amino acids. As some amino acids are precursors for others, then one may wish to target a specific amino acid rather than an entire group of amino acids. Sometimes the body may best benefit from the end product rather than the precursor. One may also want to consider the best form of the amino acid to take, that the body most requires and can utilise, e.g. choosing between Acetyl-L-Carnitine vs Carnitine Fumarate or other forms. This can be determined using muscle testing for example. Amino acid levels can tell one a great deal about potential hormonal problems, potential B-vitamin levels or even immune system issues like candida.
Urine amino acid levels are usually representative of the blood levels and reflect dietary uptake and metabolism, as well as excretion of these amino acids. However, a number of factors must be taken into consideration, as the urine levels may not necessarily correspond directly to the blood or tissue levels. For example, abnormal renal clearance, loss of urine during the collection period, decay or spoilage of the urine sample, and the presence of blood in the urine could cause the sample to be unrepresentative. However, the possibility of such problems can be judged from analytical measurements (metabolic markers for urine representativeness.)
One particular product that should be mentioned is called Custom Amino Acids by Dr David Gersten, which is as its name suggests, a custom blend of amino acid that a particular patient requires, in the relative ratios and amounts that are required, and is tailor/custom made according to the patients amino acid profile test results. One can emulate this oneself by buying a variety of different aminos and tweaking the amount of each one oneself, and/or very careful dietary planning, but this is an extremely convenient and also proven method and approach. The blend I presume is based on Montiff amino acid powders that Dr Gersten uses.
www.aminoacidpower.com/consult/supplementSchedule
Metametrix in the USA also offers a Bloodspot Amino Acid Assay test, which is available for 11 or 20 amino acids, and is a blood test using a blood spot sample taken from the finger. This is described on the Identification page. The 11 test includes: Arginine, Histidine, Isoleucine, Leucine, Lysine, Methionine, Phenylalanine, Taurine, Threonine, Tryptophan and Valine. A 30 day amino acid powder supplementation recommendation is also provided with the test results, containing relative proportions and amounts of a variety of amino acids, amino precursors and B-vitamins, for a suitable pharmacist or practitioner to make up for you. Click here for more information about the blood spot, blood plasma and urine tests for amino acid analysis.
back to top
Homocysteine Metabolism, Methylation, Transsulphuration & Glutathione Production:
What is methylation?
Methylation is the process of adding a methyl group (an extra carbon atom with three hydrogen atoms) to an amino acid to synthesize new, larger amino acids that the body requires to function properly. Methylation occurs in homocysteine metabolism. In a healthy body, methylation occurs over a billion times a second. Methylation is important in managing our DNA, converting amino acids to the required forms, producing adrenal neurotransmitters, red blood cells, the mitochondrial cofactors Coenzyme Q10 and L-Carnitine, and also in synthesising Glutathione.
The donation of methyl groups (CH3) affects many metabolic processes, as mentioned above, including brain chemistry (i.e. neurotransmitter production, e.g. Catecholamines or stress hormones), phosphatidyl choline production (a key nutrient in brain composition and cellular membranes - prone to free radical damage), mitochondrial function (i.e. creatine production) and DNA metabolism (methylation of DNA). Creatine for example helps to recycle ADP back to ATP. Demethylation of DNA is considered to be a contributary factor in the ageing process. If methylation is poor, then the production of these compounds may be impaired, with serious knock-on effects on the body.
Dr Sarah Myhill summarises some of the important functions of methylation in the article below.
www.drmyhill.co.uk/article.cfm?id=401
Methylation is essentially a type of Alkylation. Alkylation is the donating of a carbon/hydrogen group from one molecule to another. This is usually a methyl group (CH3), but in the generic sense could also be the donation an an Ethyl group (C2H5) etc. However, with regards to human biochemistry, we are concerned with methyl group donation only.
back to top
What role do Methionine and Homocysteine play in Transsulphuration and Glutathione production?
Methionine is a sulphur-containing alpha-amino acid regularly consumed in the diet, and is particularly rich in food sources like fish.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine
'As an essential amino acid, methionine is not synthesized in humans, hence we must ingest methionine or methionine-containing proteins. In plants and microorganisms, methionine is synthesized via a pathway that uses both aspartic acid and cysteine.'
When methionine-rich foods (e.g. fish) are consumed, the methionine is absorbed into the bloodstream and into cells, where enzymes convert it via a series of intermediate amino acids to Homocysteine. One of these intermediate steps is S-adenosyl methionine (SAM) which is a useful natural antidepressant, combats arthritis and is excellent at lowering homocysteine levels. Homocysteine is very detrimental to health at high levels and the body converts some of the homocysteine to cysteine, which is the building block for a variety of essential compounds in the body including Glutathione. As SAM levels increase, the body methylates Homocysteine to produce Glutathione. Glutathione is the body's greatest anti-ageing agent which is also used in detoxification. The body then converts any significant excesss of Homocysteine back to Methionine again by methylation So whilst Homocysteine is undesirable, it is required on demand and in sufficient quantities (but no more) to produce many of the body's compounds and hormones.
A diet supplying 55g of protein provides approximately 0.75g of Methionine, according to J.R. Carlson Laboratories (amino acid suppliers) - assuming protein digestion and absorption is functioning correctly.
One's recommended weight and daily protein intake can be calculated at the web site below.
www.indoorclimbing.com/Protein_Requirement.html
Cysteine and Glutathione play valuable roles in the areas of joint strength (production of glucosamine and chondroitin sulphates etc.) and also brain function (Cysteine and its derivatives are natural antidepressants). Cysteine also plays a valuable role in Taurine production, which is required for Magnesium transport. And of course critically, the transulphuration pathway (of GSH production) plays a valuable role in free radical management and liver function.
back to top
Conversion of Methionine to Homocysteine:
To understand the importance of the above B-vitamins with regards to methylation, it is important to understand how homocysteine metabolism works.
Let us first examine the process of enzymatic synthesis of Homocysteine from Methionine. This occurs in three steps:
(1) Methionine is first combined with ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) by the action of the enzyme Methionine AdenosylTransferase (MAT) to produce S-AdenosylMethionine (SAM).
(2) SAM in the presence of a Methyltransferase (MTase) enzyme then donates a methyl group (CH3 - i.e. one carbon atom and 3 hydrogen atoms) to another recipient molecule 'X' (i.e. methylation), leaving S-AdenosylHomocysteine (SAH) as a byproduct. Molecule X could include DNA, RNA, proteins, membrane phospholipids and neurotransmitters etc. Methyltransferase enzmyes are dedicated to the exact recipient molecule, so their presence can control exactly which type of molecule SAM donates its methyl group to.
(3) SAH is then combined with a water molecule (H2O), whereby Adenosine is cleaved off, by the action of the SAH Hydrolase (SAHH) enzyme, leaving Homocysteine as a byproduct.
back to top
The Function of S-AdenosylMethionine (SAM-e):
S-Adenosyl Methionine, also known as S-Adenosylmethionine, SAM, SAMe or SAM-e, is an amino acid derivative that is an intermediate co-substrate involved in methyl group transfers.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-adenosylmethionine
It is formed by reacting ATP with methionine, and is found in all living cells. It is thus often referred to as 'activated methionine'. In clinical trials involving thousands of patients it has been shown to provide proven benefits to brain and joint function. Arguably it may be more efficient to supplement with SAM-e rather than methionine, as converting methionine to SAM-e uses up ATP, and if a patient is low on ATP availability, it makes sense to move slightly further up the chain in supplemental terms.
Most of the benefits of SAM-e are as its role as an intermediate in the production of Cysteine and Glutathione. There are some specific benefits to SAM-e however, which are mentioned below.
- SAM-e has a role as a primary methyl-group donator or methylating agent. There are other methylating compounds produced by the body, but SAM-e is the most important of these. The methyl group attached to the methionine sulphur atom in SAM-e is very chemically reactive. More than 40 metabolic reactions involve the transfer of a methyl group from SAM to a variety of substrates including nucleic acids, proteins and lipids, as mentioned above.
- SAM-e is also a precursor to the production of methyl-thio-adenosine, which plays a role in connective tissue (joint) health.
Jarrow Formulas argue that supplementation with methionine can result in an elevation of Homocysteine and little cellular SAM-e elevation, although I cannot personally see a good reason why this should be, as they are both precursors to Homocysteine. Supplementation with SAM-e can potentially contribute to elevated toxic Homocysteine levels if the requisite vitamins (especially Methyl-B12 and 5-MTHF (Active Folate) that form part of the enzyme MTR required to break down Homocysteine back to Methionine are deficient. Please see the Re-Conversion of Homocysteine back into Methionine section below.
According to Wikipedia, other potential side effects of SAM-e include insomnia if taken too late in the evening, lack of appetite, diarrhea or constipation, dry mouth, sweating, rashes and anxiety (presumably down to increased Catecholamine production). As SAM-e is a weak DNA-methylating agent, it may perhaps also act as a weak carcinogen. Some also theorise it could potentially contribute to serotonin syndrome, whichin the extreme can be fatal. However, methylation is the process that converts serotonin into melatonin and other compounds, so I cannot see how too much SAM-e can contribute to too much Serotonin. This would presumably be a function of too much Trypophan or 5-HTP, the precursors (raw materials) to serotonin. Clearly the correct amino acid balance and intake is recommended, and too much of any one amino acid is not a good thing.
Myself and others have experienced mild headaches or allergic reactions when taking SAM-e, which may be on account of too high dosages or artificially created imbalances through supplementation. It is always best to have an amino acid profile performed prior to considering amino acid supplementation.
back to top
Conversion of Homocysteine into Cysteine:
Homocysteine is a necessary intermediate product in the synthesis of Cysteine (steps 5 and 6), and the conversion of Homocysteine to Cysteine through Transsulphuration (the swapping of one Sulphur molecule for another) is described below:
(5) Homocysteine is combined with the amino acid Serine by the action of the enzyme Cystathionine Beta Synthase (CBS), in the presence of Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate (P5P, or acive B6), to produce Cystathionine.
(6) Cystathionine is the converted to Cysteine and alpha-ketobutyrate using the enzyme Cystathionase, in the presence of Pyridoxal-5-Phosphate (P5P, or acive B6).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine
'Both cystathionine-beta-synthase [CBS] and cystathionine-gamma-lyase [a.k.a. cystathionase] require Pyridoxyl-5-phosphate as a cofactor'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystathionine_beta-synthase
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cystathionine-gamma-lyase
'Cystathionine gamma-lyase (or cystathionase) is an enzyme which breaks down cystathionine into cysteine and alpha-ketobutyrate. Pyridoxal-5-phosphate is a prosthetic group of this enzyme.'
back to top
Function of Cysteine:
Cysteine is used in the body to produce a variety of vital sulphur containing peptides, amino acids, neurotransmitters/hormones, mitochondrial cofactors and phospholipids in the body (sulphur metabolism - the transsulpheration pathway), via a process of methylation and transsulphuration, including:
- Glutathione. Glutathione is formed in two steps, via an intermediate compound gamma-glutamylcysteine. Gamma-glutamylcysteine is synthesized from L-glutamate and cysteine via the enzyme gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (a.k.a. glutamate cysteine ligase, GCL). This reaction is the bottleneck in glutathione synthesis. The second step in glutathione synthesis is the addition of glycine to the C-terminal of gamma-glutamylcysteine via the enzyme glutathione synthetase.
- Taurine
- Sulphate
- Creatine
- Choline
- Carnitine
- Coenzyme Q-10
- Melatonin
- Myelin basic protein (the electrically-insulated shealth around the axioms of many neurons that allow the nervous system to function properly).
- Catecholamines (stress hormones based on the amino aid tyrosine, produced by the adrenal glands during times of stress or low blood sugar levels) dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine.
- Inactivation of histamine
- Methylation of phospholipids which is essential for cell membrane fluidity, to promote transmission of signals and nutrients and cofactors through inter- and intra- cellular membranes.
back to top
Re-Conversion/Re-Methylation of Homocysteine back into Methionine:
(4) Excess homocysteine is converted back/remethylated into methionine. This occurs with the action of the addition of a methyl group from 5-Methyl-THF (5-MTHF, or the vitamin Active Folate) to the Homocysteine molecule, in the presence of the enzyme Methionine Synthase (MS) and Methyl-B12, in combination with the enzyme SAH Hydrolase (SAHH), to produce Methionine and THF (a folate intermediate).
(Cobalamin (B12)-dependent) Methionine Synthase (MS) is also known as Homocysteine Methyltransferase (MTR) or 5-MethylTetraHydroFolate-Homocysteine MethylTransferase, in mammals (e.g. humans). MTR is a gene and an enzyme.
MTR contains the cofactor - methylcobalamin (MeB12, Vitamin B12 in the form Methyl-B12) and uses the substrates N5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate (N5-methyl-THF, i.e. 5-MTHF (Active Folic Acid/Vitamin B9)) and homocysteine.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5-Methyltetrahydrofolate-homocysteine_methyltransferase
'The enzyme [MTR] works in two steps in a ping-pong reaction. First, methylcobalamin is formed by a methyl group transfer from N5-mTHF with formation of MeB12 and tetrahydrofolate (THF). In the second step, MeB12 transfers this methyl group to (homocysteine), regenerating the cofactor cobalamin and releasing the product methionine.'
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine
'...homocysteine methyltransferase [MTR] requires Vitamin B12 as a cofactor.'
There is also a second pathway or method of reconverting/remethylating Homocysteine back to Methionine:
'[Homocysteine]...can also be remethylated using Glycine Betaine (NNN-TriMethylGlycine) to Methionine via the enzyme Betaine-Homocysteine MethylTransferase (E.C.2.1.1.5, BHMT). BHMT makes up to 1.5% of all the soluble protein of the liver, and recent evidence suggests that it may have a greater influence on methionine and homocysteine homeostasis than methionine synthase (MS or MTR).'
back to top
The requirements for Folate, P5P and Methyl B12:
Sufficient availability of folates (e.g. 5-MTHF), B12 and also P5P are clearly very important in the regulation of homocysteine in the body, Glutathione production and its conversion back to methionine. Vitamin 12 helps to protect nerve tissue and brain cells, and also helps to promote better sleep. It also helps to protect the eye function against toxicity caused by excess glutamate.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methionine_synthase
'Deficiency in MTR function [i.e. ability to remethylate homocysteine back to methionine] may be due to genetic mutations, reduced levels of its cobalamin cofactor (vitamin B12), or decreased levels of the enzyme methionine synthase reductase (required for the sustained activity of MTR).'
Clearly a shortage of either the raw materials, e.g. Methionine, or a deficiency in the requisite enzymes or B vitamin cofactors can create a bottleneck in the methylation/transsulphuration process and prevent sufficient Glutathione production. Ironically, many of the enzymes involved in the whole methylation and transsulphuration pathway are actually created through methylation, so if methylation is impaired for any reason, the relevant enzymes that are involved in these processes will also be reduced, creating a vicious cycle.
Please see the diagram below for a summary of the vitamin/enzyme interactions (reproduced (modified/corrected) from very useful AutismCoach.com web site).
http://www.autismcoach.com/Glutathione%20Research.htm
A good overview of the nature of methylation blockage can found be on the research pages of PhoenixCFS, entitled 'Glutathione Depletion-Methylation Cycle Block: A Hypothesis For the Pathogenesis of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome' by Richard A. Van Konynenburg Ph.D.
CFS research pioneer Dr Paul Cheney initially based many of his theories on Konynenburg's papers (and also Pall's), although they have to a large degree been working in parallel. It is worth reviewing the research pages on Phoenix-cfs.org in general also on this subject, cross referencing the Liver Function section on the Toxicity page on MedicalInsider also.
http://phoenix-cfs.org/GSHMethylationVanKonynenburg.htm
'The methylation cycle (also called the methionine cycle) is a major part of the biochemistry of sulfur and of methyl (CH3) groups in the body. It is also tightly linked to folate metabolism and is one of the two biochemical processes in the human body that require vitamin B12 (the other being the methylmalonate pathway, which enables use of certain amino acids to provide energy to the cells). This cycle supplies methyl groups for a large number of methylation reactions, including those that methylate (and thus silence) DNA, and those involved in the synthesis of a wide variety of substances, including creatine, choline, carnitine, coenzyme Q-10, melatonin, and myelin basic protein. Methylation is also used to metabolize the catecholamines dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine, to inactivate histamine, and to methylate phospholipids, promoting transmission of signals through membranes.'
Additional articles by or about Konynenburg can be found below.
http://phoenix-cfs.org/GluAACFS04.htm
http://phoenix-cfs.org/GSHMethylDeplTheoryJuly07.htm
http://phoenix-cfs.org/GSHMethylTrtPlanJuly07.htm
Dr Myhill's web site also cites research and ideas of Rich Van Konynenburg on methylation and suitable treatment.
www.drmyhill.co.uk/article.cfm?id=401
An article 'The Aetiology of ME : A personal hypothesis by Rich Van Konynenburg' can be found at the link below.
www.meactionuk.org.uk/hypothesis.html
Anyone with a low Glutathione production and methylation problems should be targeting these B Vitamins, and looking to test for their amino acid levels too, perhaps with an Amino Acid Profile urine test, to determine which amino acids should be supplemented, if any. In general terms, additional Methionine or SAM-e may be supplemented to help with methylation, if sufficient 5-MTHF and B12 is present; and Cysteine, NAC, Glutathione and/or P5P can be supplemented to address low Glutathione production, but in reality one should consider the entire pathway and look at trying to get it working, rather than bypassing a bottleneck and not fixing it, as there will be many knock on effects in the body if the initial methylation pathway is not working.
One should also consider the downstream effects of poor methylation capability, which includes low phospholipid production and brain chemistry (neurotransmitter) imbalances. Excessive free radical damage caused to the body's cell membranes (largely composed of phospholipids) by low Glutathione and SOD levels, and also from poor liver function (excessive free radicals circulating) will require a large intake/production of phosphatidyl choline in order to repair these cell membranes, and most importantly, mitochondrial membranes, to restore proper mitochondrial function. Neurotransmitter imbalances frequently require supplementation with many of the same B vitamins as described above, but also one may want to look into potentially taking the Serotonin/Melatonin precursor 5-HTP, and perhaps even Melatonin; and examining nutritional ways to stimulate neurotransmitter production.
back to top
B-Vitamin Deficiencies and the results of high Homocysteine / low Glutathione levels:
Chronic deficiencies in the above B-vitamins (which affects many sufferers of CFS or related conditions) often results in the inability to methylate properly resulting in dangerously high Homocysteine levels and too low Glutathione levels. There are however other causes or contributary factors in high Homocysteine levels, for example, smoking, recreational drug use, chronic tobacco use, high alcohol consumption, reaching post-menopause, older age, post-heart attack or stroke, excessive niacin consumption (B3) and kidney failure. This is why people in old age and pregnant women (who have a higher demand for methylation) are recomended to take folic acid.
http://phoenix-cfs.org/GSHMethylTrtKonynenburg.htm
A low glutathione level has been linked to an increased risk of death from all common causes. High levels of homocysteine in the human body increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (i.e. strokes and heart attacks - on accont of raised levels of free radicals and increased build up of atherosclerotic plaque), pregnancy complications, the onset of Dementia and Alzheimer's Disease, Diabetes and Osteoporosis.
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16510043
www.quackwatch.org/03HealthPromotion/homocysteine.html
www.drmyhill.co.uk/article.cfm?id=324
Some people ask whether one can die of CFS. Well, the answer is indirectly, yes. CFS often puts patients into the 'high risk' category of cardiovascular disease, and whilst it may not be a factor in the short term, if untreated, may well come into play in the long term. In addition, many of the factors that affect CFS patients are common to cancer patients, although I am not going to make any statement or direct connection between the development of cancer and CFS pre-disposing factors. Suicide rates are also much higher in CFS sufferers and those suffering from related conditions than in the rest of the population. Perhaps if these poor victims were properly informed about their conditions and sensible treatments by the medical authorities and media, then these (often assisted) suicides would not occur. In short, the key to a long healthy life is keep the homocysteine level down and the glutathione level up (in other words, to ensure that the body has sufficient B-vitamins and can methylate effectively).
The following web sites contain a basic overview of homocysteine metabolism and potential health implications.
www.gethsmart.com
www.lifeextensionvitamins.com/homred.html
www.homocysteine.net
There are other potential causative factors in CFS towards heart disease besides high homocysteine levels, low glutathione levels, oxidative stress and fatty acid imbalances. Heart insufficiency and impaired cardiac function are also a likely factor, and this is explored in more detail on the Heart Insufficiency page.
back to top
Betaine as a homocysteine regulator and methylator:
Betaine, also known as trimethylglycine (TMG), is derived from sugar beet. Betaine has many commercial uses for example as a homocysteine regulator and a restorer of the body's osmotic balance. It has many uses in agriculture in animal/fish food.
TMG is a methyl-group donor and can be used to treat high homocysteine levels, to assist in the Re-methylation of Homocysteine back to Methionine pathway, turning the Homocysteine into Methionine and itself into DMG (dimethylglycine). This is the second of the two pathways (described above) to re-methylate homocysteine back into methionine. Betaine's role in this is to form part of the enzyme Betaine-Homocysteine MethylTransferase (BHMT). Supplementation with Betaine can assist in this remethylation capacity (assuming that other raw materials for BHMT are available).
TMG is commonly used with the amino acid lysine in livestock to decrease fat and increase muscle mass, although this effect has not been observed in humans with TMG.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimethylglycine
Betaine HCl is a common supplement to take for those with low levels of stomach acid, as described on the Digestion page. However, if one is taking large amounts of Betaine HCl, then this may convert additionally large amounts of Homocysteine back to Methionine. Clearly some Homocysteine is required to produce Cysteine (and Glutathione) as otherwise Cysteine/Glutathione production is not possible (e.g. inadequate methionine consmuption or too much Betaine consumption). However, in the majority of CFS cases, there is a lack of Glutathione (because of methylation problems rather than insufficient Homocysteine levels) and a massively excessive level of Homocysteine, so helping to reduce the amount of Homocysteine to Methionine is very useful; as well as folate and B12 supplementation to assist in the methylation process to convert more of this Homocysteine into Cystine and other essential downstream amino acids and peptides such as Glutathione and Hormones etc. One may elect also to take in more Glutathione precursors such as Cysteine-based products such as L-Cysteine or NAC, or perhaps even take a stabilised form of reduced Glutathione (GSH) to boost GSH levels (e.g. Tyler Recancostat).
It is probably wise to have an amino acid analysis profile, including the Homocysteine/Methionine cycle amino acids, performed by a reputable laboratory to determine the exact picture in this respect, to see which particular amino acids are deficient or in excess, and to determine the correct course of action. Please see the Identification page for more information.
back to top
Antioxidants:
Free radicals are those particles and molecules that cause damage to the body's cells and essential fatty acids (e.g. EPA) by their oxidising ability. Oxidative damage is often associated with premature ageing and biochemical and DNA damage. Some examples of oxidative damage to cells can be found on the Identification page. Oxidative stress may not be a primarly cause of CFS or related conditions in most sufferers, but it is often a contributary factor. Oxidative damage is often much higher in those suffering from impaired liver function, heavy metal toxicity or who are heavily detoxifying the body (releasing heavy metals from the tissues). For an explanation of Free Radicals, Oxidative Stress and the body's own protective Antioxidants (known as Primary Antioxidants, please see the Oxidative Stress and Free Radicals page.
Dietary sources of antioxidant rich foods (known as External or Secondary Antioxidants) are essential in protecting against the effects of ageing and DNA and RNA oxidation.
www.netdoctor.co.uk/focus/nutrition/facts/oxidative_stress/oxidativestress.htm
Sources of external antioxidants include a variety of nutrients. Some of these are listed below, and crudely categorised for convenience:
- Vitamins A, C and E. Vitamin C can be found in Citrus Fruits and in particularly high concentrations in Acerola cherries.
- Glutathione precursors such as MSM (spelt Methyl-Sulfonyl-Methane in the US and spelt Methyl Sulfonyl-Methane in the UK); NAC (N-Acetyl-L-Cysteine aka N-Acetyl Cysteine); and R-Lipoic Acid (RLA). RLA is discussed on the Mitochondrial and Detox pages.
- Amino acids such as Taurine, Lysine etc.
- Elements suchs as Selenium, Zinc, Manganese, Copper etc. Copper is also a powerful anti-microbial, specifically anti-parasitic element. One particularly effective form of Selenium is methylselenocysteine, which combines Selenium with the antioxidant Cysteine, and which is readily absorbed and utilised, e.g. Jarrow Formulas Selenium Synergy.
- Cofactors such as Co-Enzyme Q-10
- Essential Fatty Acids, in particular Omega 3 and to a lesser extent Omega 6 EFAs. ALA (Om3) is a powerful antioxidant. Ground Flax Seed, for example, contains 21% ALA. Olives and olive oil contain some Omega 3 and 6 as well as many other antioxidants too.
- Brightly coloured, fresh fruit and vegetables (e.g. reds, yellows, oranges etc. vegetables). Red/purple/blue fruit tend to be very high in antioxidants, e.g. blue berries (e.g. Ariona berries (Oki fruit drink); blueberries, blackcurrants etc.), melon juice, mangosteen juice, noni juice, acerola cherries (very rich in vitamin C - can be bought also in powder form), acai berries/juice, camu camu fruit/juice, maqui berries/juice (reputedly the highest ORAC value fruit extract), goji berries/juice, pomegranate fruit/juice (e.g. Jarrow Pomegreat juice concentrate). Some juice mixtures are available such as Blue Lightning organic blue berry power mixture, etc. Red wine is also high in antioxidants but also containing the poison alcohol and often a number of chemicals (pesticides, sulphite etc.) French Red Wine Extract supplements are also available (i.e. without the alcohol) - or try alcohol-free red wine? Various red fruits or blue fruits freeze dried mixtures are availble, including New Vitality's RubyReds and Nature's Plus Source of Life Blue Lightning.
- Sprouted beans and seeds, particularly sprouted broccoli seeds. They contain a number of useful flavanoids (antioxidants), especially Sulphoraphanes. Scientists have identified Sulforaphane as a long-lasting natural antioxidant and detoxifier. The downstream protective effects of Sulforaphone can be felt for up to several days after taking it. Much smaller quantities of Sulphoraphane are required relative to other antioxidants to provide the same level of protection. Sulphoraphane Glucosinolate contributes to the integrity of all cells and has been shown to have tumor blocking properties. More than 200 publications have been released detailing the importance of Sulphoraphanes in activating the body's natural detoxification and antioxidant enzymes, i.e. Glutathione, protecting the body from free radical damage. Sulphoraphanes can be eaten in raw or cooked broccoli sprouts - purchased or grown yourself - (raw having a high level of thyroid suppressing goitrogens) or by taking a supplement a Broccoli Seed (Sprout) extract supplement. Certain broccoli seed strains yield a higher Sulphoraphane Glucosinolate content, which has been trademarked SGS by the Brassica Foundation. 'SGS' is found in a variety of high quality supplements including Xymogen's OncoPLEX, Jarrow Formulas' BroccoMax, Jarrow Formulas' Selenium Synergy or added to Brassica teas.
www.brassica.com/sci/sci.htm
www.brassica.com/sci/sgsfactsheet.htm
www.phytochemicals.info/phytochemicals/sulforaphane.php - Brown Algae Extract - contains SEANOL-F, a patented polyphenol/phlorotannin extract from Ecklonia cava brown algae. The Algae originates from South Korean and Japanese waters. Also known as Ecklonia cava Extract (ECE) or Seanol. SEANOL-F is a marine-based polyphenol/phlorotannin extract that is an extremely long last antioxidant with a half life of 12 hours compared with 30 minutes for many water-soluble, land-based polyphenols (from fruit etc.) There are two types of SEANOL, F and P. P is black in colour and is a purer extract, whereas F is most likely a slightly less processed form. SEANOL-P is found in a small number of products by Progressive Labs, typically in the 50mg range, whereas SEANOL-F is normally found in the area of 400mg in various supplements. Both F and P are produced by the South Korean company LiveChem using a patented method. SEANOL-F is marketed under licence in the USA to Simply Health, who have in turn licensed the product brand name 'FibroB'oost to JR Renew. Other supplement manufacturers who sell FibroBoost include ProHealth, Nutricology/Allergy Research Group and Doctor's Best.
- Astaxanthin - a type of carotenoid found in Haematococcus Pluvialis microalgae. It is a potent antioxidant. It is known to be the most powerful naturally occurring antioxidant, having 550 times the antioxidant activity of Vitamin E and 10 times the activity of Beta Carotene.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astaxanthin - Greens - particularly cereal grasses (e.g. Barley Grass) and also algae (e.g. Spirulina which is high in Beta Carotene). Green superfood powder mixtures can be purchased which, as well as cereal rass and algae mixtures, also often contain sprouted broccoli and other sprouted vegetables, acerola cherries etc.
- Herbs/seeds/leaves - grape seed extract (high in polyphenols, specifically Oligomeric Procyanidins or OPCs), ginkgo biloba, milk thistle (silymarin). Some supplements contain a variety of different plant-sourced antioxidants listed above, e.g. Nutri Plant Source Antioxidants, or Allergy Research Group's FlaviNOx.
- Rice bran and germ (or rice bran and germ oil) is one of the most nutrient dense foods available. It is rich in antioxidants as well as B-vitamins. A form of predigested rice bran and germ is called RiSoTriene (by healthy-living.org). It contains gamm oryzanol, tocopherols, tocotrienols, polyphenols, carotenoids, phytosterols as well as various B-vitamins (esp. inositol), phospholipids, minerals and enzymes.
- Cocoa (aka Cacoa) beans (flavonols) etc. e.g. cocoa nibs. Please see below.
- Teas - yerba mate tea, white tea and green tea (both containing catechins - a type of tannin or antioxidant polyphenol). Yerba mate tea contains more antioxidants than white tea which itself contains more antioxidants than green tea. All three are however excellent sources of antioxidants. Yerba mate contains xanthines, stimulant alkaloids from the same family as caffeine and theobromine (but slightly different in effect). Green tea contains theophylline and theobromine. White tea contains more theobromine than green tea, as well as more theanine and catechins. Black tea is oxidised prior to processing and is much darker in composition and clearly has much less antioxidant capability. It contains much fewer catechins. I can drink a variety of green teas, as well as white tea in moderation, but finds Yerba Mate far too Coffee-like in it's 'caffeine' content and just gives him a headache rather than perking him up, and for that reason does not drink it any more. It is of Brazilian origin and not of SE Asian origin like green teas tend to be, and a different plant entirely. It should be noted that the polyphenols of Black Tea and Green Tea are inotropic substances and may strengthen the contractions of the cardiac muscle during exercise. Rooribos tea contains comparable levels of polyphenols to green tea, but without the oxalic acid that may contribute to kidney stones. It also contains an SOD mimic.
- DMAE - a precursor to Choline and the neurotransmitter Acetylcholine - is also a powerful OH. free radical scavenger. Can also be taken in the drug form Centrophenoxine.
www.eckloniacava.com/
www.springboard4health.com/notebook/nutrients_ecklonia.html
Immortal Hair Forum - The truth about Seanol
www.jrrenew.com
One measurement used by some suppliers for antioxidative capability is the Oxygen Radical Absorbance Capacity or ORAC value. This is a direct measurement of ability to neutralise free radicals, and is a useful comparison scale for various food an supplement types. Not everyone cites the ORAC value of their products or foods/teas however.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen_radical_absorbance_capacity
A rough and ready guide to ORAC values can be found at the link below.
http://oracvalues.com/sort/food
ORAC values are clearly dependent on the concentration of a food source, and dried berries weight less than fresh berries, and so have higher ORAC values, even though they contain the same antioxidants berrry for berry. Plant extracts may also have a higher ORAC value than the original plant, and are also usually more expensive also. The ORAC values of fruits and berries fleshly plucked/picked will clearly be hugely higher than a processed supplement that reaches you via a supplement retailer. Below Dr Mercola examines the relative value for money of tropical berry extracts and supplements compared with one's indigenous fruits and vegetables.
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2008/12/30/is-the-superfood-acai-worth-the-price.aspx
It should be noted that whilst cocoa beans are high in flavonols (polyphenols), they also contain high levels of the methylxanthines. The main methylxanthine in cocoa is Theobromine , which accounts for its cardiovascular supportive effects and mood elevation properties. Caffeine is another methylxanthine found in cocoa is lesser quantities. The caffeine content is less than ideal. Commercial chocolate also contains large amounts of sugar - milk chocolate hardly containing any cacoa at all). Cocoa beans will be higher in flavonols than roasted cocoa powder and indeed processed chocolates, as roasting in air will tend to oxidise antioxidants.
www.uncleharrys.com/infobase/product/cacao_beans.php
www.foodproductdesign.com/articles/465/465_0705INI.html
'Research on the role of phytonutrients gives considerable attention to the health contributions of cocoa and chocolate. Polyphenolics, particularly the antioxidant flavonoids that contribute to the health benefits of wine, coffee and tea also occur in significant, but inconsistent, levels in cocoa and chocolate. The flavonoid antioxidants are concentrated in the solids of the cocoa press cake rather than the cocoa butter. Oxidation of the flavonoids, some of which contribute to flavor, commences when the bean is removed from the seedpod and continues during roasting.'
The roasting process also renders Cocoa with more hot energy according to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM). Sugar free chocolate is available, containing Xylitol, for example, however, even natural plant (e.g. stevia) or sugar alcohol based sweetners may tend to aggravate dampness, qi deficiency and spleen meridian deficiencies, according to TCM.
Cocoa beans, cocoa powder and chocolate are also acidic, with a pH between 5 and 6, except for chocolate types found in baked goods that are pH adjusted so as not to interfere with the leavening process. Please see the Acidosis page for more information.
The benefits of controlling flavonoid oxidation have inspired some manufacturers to patent methods for selecting and protecting polyphenols and increasing their nutrient availability.
Ironically, at the end of the 19th Century and start of the 20th Century, the type of tea most commonly consumed in the UK was green tea. However, because of heavy advertising campaigns by manufacturers of black tea, the Edwardian population gradually shifted over to the consumption of black tea. This was not because of the taste, but because some disreputable tea firms were taking used green tea leaves, drying them out, and reselling them. Drinking 'black tea' was the 'only' way to be sure that you weren't drinking recycled tea leaves. And so black tea (much lower in antioxidants and higher in caffeine) predominated.
Vitamin C has been shown to protect the mitochondria inside cells from oxidative damage, and has even been shown to interfere with chemotherpay cancer treatment (which works on the basis of in relative terms indiscriminately oxidising/poisoning the body' cells, including the cancer cells). Many cancer treatments involve the use of antioxidants.
www.naturalnews.com/024380.html
The most powerful antioxidants are the body's own internally produced antioxidants, known as Primary Antioxidants, which target specific types of oxidative threats in the body, and are the most important down-regulators of oxidative stress in the body. They help to support proper liver function and the immune system. These Primary Antioxidants are the four in the list below. The most important of these are SOD, Catalase and Gpx. They are enzymes that break down oxidants, i.e. antioxidant enzymes. Melatonin is a antioxidant neurotransmitter and is also involved in the Circadian Rhythm (awake/sleep cycle).
The external antioxidants (i.e. those consumed and in some cases injected (e.g. Glutathione)), known as Secondary Antioxidants, are relatively less potent in their antioxidant capacity and are antioxidant chemicals. Perhaps the most effective approach is to prime the body to produce its own extra strength internal (primary) antioxidants, including SOD, Catalase and Gpx. These antioxidants provide the primary and most important level of defence against oxidative stress and free radical damage. Of course, a healthy diet and in particular one that is rich in Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids and other nutritious foods sources, with perhaps moderate amounts of green tea and algae, will also be high in antioxidants anyway. It is generally good practice to eat a diet rich in antioxidants and to take additional antioxidant supplement of one form or another.
For more information on the body's natural antioxidants, please see the Oxidative Stress page.
Pure-XP GliSODin is an example of a vegetarian form of SOD (based on a Melon juice extract) and according to manufacturer claims is not broken down in the stomach like other forms of internal antioxidants like SOD and Glutathione. Would it be cheaper to eat melons regularly?
www.glisodin.com
Catalase is an enzyme that breaks down Hydrogen Peroxide into water and oxygen.
Glutathione peroxidase (Gpx) is the general name of an enzyme family with peroxidase activity whose main biological role is to protect the organism from oxidative damage. The biochemical function of glutathione peroxidase is to reduce lipid hydroperoxides to their corresponding alcohols and to reduce free hydrogen peroxide to water.
For more information on Glutathione Peroxidase and Superoxide, and their connection to mitochondrial function and cardiac function, please see the Cardiac Insufficiency page.
For information relating to Glisodin's ability to prevent DNA damage/mutation from UV exposure, please see the Exposure to Light section on the Stress Management page.
Please note that it is possible to take too many antioxidants, mainly if one is consuming supplement sources and plant extracts. This can result in a number of adverse effects including reduced ability to produce energy and a suppressed immune system. Antioxidants should be taken according to the body's balanced requirements and not in excess. Please see the Peroxynitrite page for more information.
back to top
Fatty Acid Imbalances:
General
A fatty acid is a carboxylic acid (or organic acid), often with a long aliphatic tail (long chains), and is either saturated or unsaturated. Depending on the context, fatty acids may be assumed to have at least 8 carbon atoms, e.g., caprylic acid (octanoic acid). Most of the natural fatty acids have an even number of carbon atoms, because their biosynthesis involves acetate which has two carbon atoms. Industrially, fatty acids are produced by the hydrolysis of the ester linkages in a fat or biological oil (both of which are triglycerides), with the removal of glycerol.
Essential fatty acids, or EFAs, cannot be synthesised by the body, and must be obtained directly from food sources, and help to raise our good cholesterol levels in the body (High Density Lipoprotein). These include Omega 3 and Omega 6 fatty acids, which are polyunsaturated fats. Omega 7 and Omega 9 fatty acids are non-essential fatty acids, as they can be synthesised by the body from starches and sugars. Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids are mono-unsaturated fats and specific saturated fats.
As a general rule, polyunsatured fatty acids are powerful anti-oxidants and are linked with the reduction of cancer risk and even successful cancer treatment.
A saturated fat is one whose carbon chain is fully populated with hydrogen atoms and contains only single bonds, whereas an unsaturated fat has a carbon chain not fully populated with hydrogen atoms and contains one or more double bonds.
The body requires fats of the correct type and ratio for a variety of bodily functions and to maintain health. Essential fatty acids play an important part in cell membrane and brain composition. The consumption of sufficient essential fatty acids is necessary for efficient energy production, digestive function, good joint health, cell membrane function and fluidity, oxgen permeability and immune system functioning. Too many long chain saturated fats and trans fats in one's diet can result in displacement in cell membranes and brain tissue, altering the body's biochemistry and biochemical efficiency. Fatty acid imbalances may results in lower brain functioning (a gluey brain with too many long chain, rogue fats), fatigue, an impaired immune system, impaired mitochondrial (energy production) function, impaired cell membrane function (i.e. substitution of essential fatty acids with long chain fatty acids), impaired joint mobility, an impaired digestive system, a build up of atherosclerotic plaque in the arteries close to the heart, increased 'bad' cholesterol levels, and an increased cancer and heart disease risk.
It was formerly believed in the 1970s and 1980s that a low fat diet was the healthiest, and that keeping a low fat intake (simply avoiding fatty foods and instead eating low fat products) would help to prevent heart disease and reduce cholesterol levels. Unfortunately the media has over the last 30 years created the illusion that all fats are bad for you and is slowly starting to tell the real story. The vast majority of the population of the UK and many other industrialised countries consume too many 'bad' fats, those that are harmful to health and which increase blood cholesterol levels, but do not consume enough 'good' fats. Sufferers of depression in many cases find that simply changing their diet and consuming more 'good' fats, that they feel instantly better, and are cured in a matter of weeks! Fatty acid imbalances are often particularly marked in sufferers of CFS or related conditions. Please read on to find out more about 'good' and 'bad' fats. However, it has been found in studies that cholesterol levels and atherosclerotic plaque do not tend to decrease in those with low total fat diets, but stay the same.
www.benbest.com/health/essfat.html
back to top
Omega 3
Omega 3 (n3 or w-3) fatty acids are polyunsaturated fats and include EPA (EicosoPentaenoic Acid), DHA (DocosaHexaenoic Acid) and ALA (Alpha-Linolenic Acid). EPA and DHA are fish derived and ALA is plant derived.
Omega 3 oils are easily oxidised by heat and exposure to light and air. This is why they are often purchased in darkened bottles. They should be stored in the fridge (or freezer) if they are not consumed relatively quickly. Heating or using an omega 3 rich oil is the worst thing you can do and not only does it ruin its nutritional value, but also makes it go rancid, destroying the fatty acid molecules, breaking them down into smaller molecules and producing a huge number of free radicals (which damage the body's cells and cause preamture ageing and oxidative stress). Oils high in Omega 3 should therefore be consumed cold and NEVER used for cooking (including ground Flax seeds). A list of oil sources rich in Omega 3 is included below. This is why frying with vegetable oil or corn oil or any other oil high in Omega 3 or 6 is very bad for you, on account of the high rancid fat and free radical content that arises through the heat of frying. Much better to simply steam then pour on room temperature oil - the food still has that oily taste and maintains its crispness through light steaming. Try it. If you compare the taste of a heated vegetable oil to an unheated one, at the same temperature, in the absence of the fried food, you will notice the fried/heated oil tastes rather unpleasant in comparison. This is why a product such as Udo's Choice Oil Blend should be kept in the fridge too (see below). One can taste an oil that has become rancid or oxidised because of the unpleasant taste. If an Omega 3 rich oil or food tastes like this, for example, has been stored too long, then dispose of it without hesitation.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rancidification
http://www.westonaprice.org/knowyourfats/skinny.html
Omega 3 fatty acids come from a variety of food sources, such as marine foods and oily fish (and fish oils) (high levels of EPA and DHA), ground flaxseed/linseed, ground chia seed, oils (flaxseed/linseed oil is most potent vegetable source, also walnut oil, black currant oil, canola oil, pumpkin seed oil, soybean oil, wheat germ oil, macadamia nut oil - all sources of ALA), green leafy vegetables (such as lettuce, kale, purslane, spinach, broccoli, etc.), legumes (such as kidney beans, pinto beans, lima beans, mung beans, soya beans, split peas etc. - ALA), grass-fed beef, colostrum (DHA), and certain fruits such as citrus fruits, cherries and melons.
For example, Linusit Organic Linusprout (ground sprouted flaxseed) contains:
- 25% ALA (n3)
- 5% LA (n6)
- 21% Dietary Fibre
- 6% Monosaturated Fat (n9)
- 3% Saturated Fat
- 37% Carbohydrate
- 25% Protein
Flaxseed is high in the phytoestrogen known as Lignans. Whilst providing some antioxidant effect, these may also interfere with the body's endocrine system. Chia seeds are as rich a source of Omega 3 yet do not contain high levels of lignans so are probably preferable to take.
It should be noted that the human conversion of ALA to EPA and DHA is often quite slow and inefficient. In most cases, 15% of ALA converts to EPA and sometimes no ALA actually converts to DHA. The conversion may be inhibited by by too high an intake of Omega 6 fatty acids (i.e. LA containing foods - see below), trans fats such as deep fried foods, fast foods and baked goods, alcohol intake, and specific health conditions, and mineral and vitamin deficiencies (Vitamins B3, B6 and C, and zinc and magnesium). Vegetarians and vegans must therefore be especially careful in their diet. Fish are however a direct source of EPA and DHA. It is therefore recommended that fish based products are one's main source of Omega 3 fatty acids (ideally). Roughly 8% of the mass of the brain is made up of DHA. DHA availability is especially important in growing babies and children.
When taking EPA/DHA supplements, one may want to ascertain what the Dioxin and PCB toxin levels are, and indeed Mercury levels, as these may be present in significant levels in certain fish oil supplements.
www.food.gov.uk/multimedia/webpage/70427
There is some recent evidence to suggest that the bodys assimilation of EPA is inhibited when taken simultaneously with DHA (i.e. in fish oil). The research points to higher ratios of EPA to DHA result in much better the assimilation. Some special Omega 3 supplements (EPA is chemically isolated from the fish oil) contain only EPA and no DHA, and may be better than regular fish oil based supplements. In addition, they reduce the expose to the individual of excessive Vitamin A levels that can result from fish oil consumption (which is debated as to whether it is indeed harmful). Chris Masterjohn argues that high Vitamin A levels in Cod Liver Oil are no problem as they occur in a natural form (not artificially synthesized form) and are balanced with vitamins D and K.
www.cholesterol-and-health.com/Benefit-Of-Cod-Liver-Oil.html
DHA can be created from EPA as and when required by the body. Conversion from DHA back to EPA is however very difficult, but if sufficient EPA is consumed in the diet, then this is not a problem. An example of such a supplement is Igennus' VegEPA (which has a slightly misleading name because it is based on fish oil - perhaps the 'Veg' part refers to the small amount of Evening Primrose Oil that is added! Vegetarians take note! Talk about marketing people getting carried away.)
For those who do not regularly take fish oil, DHA or EPA supplements, or have not taken them for some weeks (e.g. if you took a break and switched to an ALA supplement (e.g. ground flaxseed) for a while), you may find that your stomach finds it a handful for a few days or up to a week, until it adjusts. This is certainly my experience, but of course may vary according to the individual.
Health Industry 'experts' have stated that a daily of intake of 500mg of either DHA or EPA (fish source Omega 3) is required (through food or supplementation) to ensure optimal health. ALA (plant sourced Omega 3) has less proven health benefits, although this may be hotly debated by vegans.
The links below discuss conversion from ALA to DHA and EPA, and related issues.
www.udoerasmus.com/articles/udo/fish_oil.htm
www.omega3sealoil.com/Chapter4_3c.html
One of the arguments against taking Cod Liver Oil is that many commercially prepared sources significantly oxidise the oil when it is being pressed from the fish livers on account of excessive contact with air and exposure to UV. High quality sources of Cod Liver oil significantly reduce the extent of oxidation and are frequently referred to as 'stabilised'. One example of a high quality Fish Oil supplement is Eskimo 3. Dr Joseph Mercola goes one step further and suggests that one should avoid fish oil completely and take Krill oil instead. Krill are shrimp-like curstaceans and are harvested mainly in the Antarctic. The Omega 3 fatty acids in Krill oil are attached to phospholipids as opposed to triglycerides in fish oil, making them more readily absorbed into the mitochondria and cell nucleus. The EPA/phospholipid molecule is also bound to Astaxanthin, an extremely potent antioxidant. According to Dr Moerck, Krill oil is 200 times more stable to oxidative damage than fish oil. Neptune Technologies is the Canadian company that holds the patent for krill oil extraction and most if not all Krill Oil supplements on the market are rebranded Neptune Krill Oil.
http://articles.mercola.com/sites/articles/archive/2010/10/16/rudi-moerck-on-fish-oil.aspx
www.fourhourworkweek.com/blog/2008/07/23/krill-oil-48x-better-than-fish-oil/
back to top
Omega 6
Omega 6 (n6 or w-6) fatty acids are also polyunsaturated fats. The most beneficial of the omega-6 fatty acids are those that contain Linoleic Acid (LA). These are converted in the body to Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA), another Omega 6 fatty acid. GLA and Arachidonic acid (AA), the third type of Omega 6 fatty acid, are ultimately to prostaglandins, which are hormone-like molecules that help regulate inflammation and blood pressure, as well as kidney, gastrointestinal, and heart functions, and thromboxanes, which are involved in platelet aggregation and blood clotting. Omega 6 fatty acids can tolerate some heat, but if overheated will turn rancid (as discussed above) creating a huge number of free radicals. Avoid roasting nuts mentioned below, e.g. peanut butter, or overheating groundnut oil in the pan etc.; or frying eggs; or frying with vegetable oils.
Good dietary sources of omega-6 fatty acids include cereals (LA), eggs (AA), peanuts, specific grains, nuts and seeds and their respective oils (i.e. groundnut/peanut, safflower, sunflower, corn, sesame seed, pumpkin, soya bean, walnut, wheatgerm, grape seed, pistachio nut, pecan nut, brazil nut, almond and macadamia nut - LA), Evening Primrose Oil (aka EPO) and starflower/borage oil (both contain LA and GLA), poultry, most vegetable oils (LA), colostrum (GLA), whole-grain breads (LA), baked goods (LA), algae (such as Chlorella and Spirulina - GLA) and margarine (LA). Please note that evening primrose oil and nuts contain abundant amounts of Vitamin E, so high dosages of EPO may result in a high Vitamin E intake.
Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) is a conjugated form (an isomer) of linoleic acid, normally produced from modified Safflower oil. CLA aids in muscle deposition as opposed to fat deposition (reducing body fat and increasing lean muscle). CLA inhibits the enzyme that transports fat from the blood to fat cells. CLA may assist in lowering LDL cholesterol levels. Articles relating specifically to CLA can be found at the links below. CLA is sold as a weight control supplement. Testing on mice suggest that high intake of CLA may result in heart disease, but research is not conclusive in humans.
http://www.ironmagazine.com/review9.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugated_linoleic_acid
Research shows that grass-fed animal meat products are higher in Conjugated Linoleic Acid (CLA) than the grain and soya bean fed counterparts. Below is a relevant article from Weston A. Price Foundation's web site.
www.westonaprice.org/farming/splendor.html
www.seedsofhealth.co.uk/articles/healthy_beef.shtml
My friend Aaron is a major proponent of grass fed dairy and meat products.
With most people, getting enough Omega 6 fatty acids (in the form of LA) is not a problem, rather getting enough Omega 3 oils is more critical (as is illustrated futher below). Most Omega 6 fatty acids are consumed in the LA form, rather than GLA. If the vegetable and nut (oils) consumed are heated/baked/fried, then it is likely that much of the LA content may be become rancid. GLA may be hard for the body to produce from LA, and so GLA supplementation may be a good idea in certain individuals, even if LA consumption is high or 'sufficient'. If one is supplementing Omega 6, then it is probably much better to take a GLA supplement rather than one just containing LA.
Many beneficial oils such as black currant seed oil, borage oil, evening primrose oil contain GLA (Omega 6) as well as Omega 3 oils. Rarely does not obtain exclusively Omega 3 from any one source, but a mixture of Omega 3, 6 and 9 and other saturated fats. Please note that some of these Omega 6 sources also contain harmful trans fats, e.g. margarine (see below).
Somewhat confusingly, the term Linolenic Acid is used to describe both Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA), an Omega 6 fatty acid, and also Alpha Linolenic Acid (ALA), an Omega 3 fatty acid. On this page, we refer to the specific types of Linolenic Acid.
back to top
Omega 7
Omega 7 fatty acid, or Palmitoleic Acid, is a monounsaturated fatty acid and is one of the main types of oil produced by skin glands. Omega 7 does not need to be supplemented and can be produced from starches and sugars. Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids are usually found in the same food sources (see below).
back to top
Omega 9
Omega 9 fatty acid, or Oleic Acid, is a monounsaturated fatty acid. Omega 7 does not need to be supplemented and can be produced from starches and sugars. It is the most abundant fatty acid found in nature and the main type of oil produced by skin glands. Sources of Omega 7 and 9 fatty acids include hazelnuts (78%), olive oil (72%), almonds (70%), canola oil (58%), avocado fruit (50%), macadamia nuts (45%), apricot seeds (35%), almonds (33%), sunflower oil (20%) and coconut oil (8%). Cocoa butter often contains oleic acid. Saturated fats are used mainly for energy production. Olive oil contains high amounts of Vitamin E, and so a large intake of olive oil may result in an elevated Vitamin E intake.
back to top
Saturated Fats
Long-chain saturated fats come from both plant and animal sources and include fatty acids such as lauric acid (found in coconut oil), acetic acid (found in vinegar), stearic acid and palmitic acid. Animal sources probably make up the majority of sources of saturated fat for most people. Stearic acid is nature's most common long-chain fatty acid, and is a saturated fat that can be converted to oleic acid (Omega 9) which is monounsaturated. Palmitic acid constitutes 20-30% of most animal fats and is a major constituent of many vegetable oils (35-40% of palm oil). Saturated fats tend a high melting temperature and tend to be hard at room temperature, although some sources harden only at refrigeration temperature. Saturated fats are non-essential fatty acids and can be manufactured form monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats in the body. Long chain saturated fats from food are only used for energy production and have no other nutritional purpose.
Animal sources of saturated fats included meat (especially red meats), seafood, whole-milk dairy products (cheese, milk, butter, yoghurt, ice cream etc.) poultry skin and egg yolks. Plant sources include coconut oil, palm oil, palm kernel oil, peanut (groundnut) oil and olive oil.
Palm kernel oil, palm oil and coconut oil are regarded as 'good' sources of saturated fats, because they are medium chain saturated fats (MCFA - medium chain fatty acids) and are metabolised differently in the body to long chain saturated fats (LCFA - long chain fatty acids). The majority of plant sources of saturated fats tend to be long chain fatty acids however. MCFA do not have the same properties as long chain saturated fats. MCFA are very different from LCFA. They do not have a negative effect on cholesterol and help to protect against heart disease. MCFA help to lower the risk of both atherosclerosis and heart disease. They also help to boost the immune system. It is primarily due to the MCFA in coconut oil that makes it so special and so beneficial. The MCFA in organic virgin coconut oil, for example, i.e. oleic acid (omega 9), lauric acid (saturated), capric acid (saturated), caprylic acid (saturated), also have antimicrobial and anti-viral properties (and is even used in assist in AIDS patients). Palm oil is the least desirable of the above oils as is a cheap ingredient used in commercial chocolate making and to make soap.
www.coconutresearchcenter.com
http://www.alternative-healthzine.com/html/0108_2.html
www.coconut-connections.com/research.htm
http://products.mercola.com/coconut-oil
www.westonaprice.org/knowyourfats/index.html
It should be noted that neither palm kernel oil, palm oil or coconut oil are 100% saturated fat, and so contain a proportion of polyunsaturated fats. Logic would dictate that the higher percentage of polyunsaturated fats an oil contains, the lower its smoking point with respect to cooking, but this is not necessarily the case. Not all polyunsaturated fats have the same smoking point, for instance. Also, it depends on whether the oil is refined or not, and refined oils, whilst not ideal for consumption cold, may make better oils for cooking as they tend to have a higher smoking point. Dry refined coconut oil has a smoking point of 204C, whereas dry expeller pressed virgin coconut oil has a smoking point of 177C. Coconut oil is classified as a 'Medium High Heat Oil' below, rather than a 'High Heat' oil, even though it has the least unsaturated fat.
There are a wide variety of oils that could be used for cooking but most are too obscure or expensive to make them good candidates. Refined sesame oil has a smoking point of 232C (perhaps why the Chinese tend to use toasted sesame oil for wok cooking), refined peanut (groundnut) oil has a smoking point of 232C, expeller pressed rapeseed (canola) oil 190-232C, and refined Safflower oil 266C! Clarified butter has a smoking point of 252C so is a good candidate for baking or frying. Avocado oil has a SP of 270C so if you can afford it, it is the best choice for cooking. When it comes to Olive Oil, high quality extra virgin olive oil with low acidity has a smoking point of 207C, so marginally better than coconut oil, whereas lower quality (more acidic) extra virgin olive oil is as low as 160C. Virgin olive oil has a smoking point of 199C. Refined soybean and semi-refined walnut oil are also reasonable candidates. Oils are in general best consumed unrefined and cold, but if you are going to use them for frying, then it is best to make a sensible choice. Coconut oil is heavily promoted in natural health internet circles as being the best oil for frying but this is exaggerated and more a case of wishful thinking because of the other beneficial properties of coconut oil.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smoke_point
www.kokonutpacific.com.au/OilSales/OilCoconutoil/Oil_specs.html
http://www.spectrumorganics.com/images/uploads/Spectrum%20Mini%20Kitchen%20Guide.pdf
www.goodeatsfanpage.com/CollectedInfo/OilSmokePoints.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cooking_oil
Bear in mind that excessive oil consumption puts a heavy burden on the liver and gallbladder. According to Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), excessive saturated fat intake, even 'good' saturated fats, can contribute to damp energy, and if the body has too much damp energy already, it can make one's condition worse. 'Bad' saturated fats are found in grain-fed animal produced butter, margarine and meats (especially red meats).
back to top
Trans Fats
A trans fatty acid (often abbreviated to trans fat) is an unsaturated fatty acid molecule that contains a trans double bond between carbon atoms, which makes the molecule less kinked compared to fatty acids with cis double bonds. Transfats have no nutritional benefit but conversely are associated with a number of health risks.
The majority of trans fats in our diet are artificially produced, formed when food manufacturers turn liquid oils (polyunsaturated fats) into solid fats like hard margarine (i.e. hydrogenated vegetable based products). Hydrogenation of a polyunsaturated fat also increases the shelf-life. The harder the fat at room temperature, the higher the level of hydrogenation (and higher the amount of trans fats). Artificially producted trans fats include hydrogenated vegetable oils and margarine are often used in baked goods and fried fast foods. French fries or chips (as the Brits call them), or onion rings, tend to be cooked in hydrogenated vegetable oil. They typically contain up to 45% of their total fat content as trans fats. Bread and other baked products are usually produced with hydrogenated vegetable oils. Baked goods that are not made with trans fats are available if you look, but the vast majority aren't and are best avoided entirely.
Hydrogenated vegetable oil (trans fats) has been banned in Switzerland, Denmark and California, on account of strong links to increased risks of coronary heart disease, yet other countries still allow it to be used, affecting buyers of cheaper convenience goods who do not pay attention to labels or understand what all the ingredients are.
A small amount of trans fat (typically 2-5% of total fat content) is found naturally, primarily in dairy products, some meat, and other animal-based foods. Virtually all processed food and ready meals contain trans fats. When choosing the latter, try to find the product with hydrogenated fat or oil as low down on the ingredients list as possible. Avoid eating fried food when in restaurants as they often use partially hydrogenated vegetable oil in their fryers. Or ask what kind of oil they use.
Trans fats are defined on Wikipedia at the link below.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfats
Trans fats, like saturated fats, tend to have a high melting point (M.P.) and are usually solid at room temperature (e.g. certain cooking oils are often thicker after heating and subsequent cooling).
Trans fats and 'bad' saturated fats should be avoided as much as possible. They are a major contributor to atherosclerosis and coronary heart disease, and tend to decrease good cholesterol (High Density Lipoprotein - HDL) levels, whilst increasing bad cholesterol (Low Density Lipoprotein - LDL) levels. See the Cholesterol section below for more information.
Below is an article on Dr Mercola's web site about trans fats and how to avoid them.
www.mercola.com/2003/jul/19/trans_fat.htm
Below is a general overview of trans fats and cholesterol.
www.webmd.com/content/article/72/81813.htm
There is more information and discussion about trans fat content in our diet on the digestion page in the Processed Foods section.
back to top
Importance of correct Omega 6 to Omega 3 Ratio
Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids compete for usage in the body. This is why it is important to consume them in the correct ratio. The optimum ratio is somewhere between 1:1 and 1:4 of Omega 3 to Omega 6. Some scientists argue that a 1:4 ratio is optimal for absorption of essential fatty acids. It is likely the exact ratio that is required perhaps depends on the individual. I have personally found 1:4 best, restoring EFA levels to normal, when they were previously deficient. Historically speaking, mankind has survived on a 1:1 ratio for tens of thousands of years. In most modern western diets, full of fried foods, high grain cotent and processed foods, the ratio is often somewhere in the region of 1:10 to 1:50. The high Omega 6 levels compared to Omega 3 are usually however based on LA consumption, and not GLA consumption, the latter being a probably much superior type of Omega 6.
Oils such as corn oil, sunflower oil etc are usually low in omega-3s, but contain significant amounts of Omega 6 oils and are most commonly used in cooking. An excess of Omega 6 fatty acids can have a serious detrimental effect on one's health. When there is a shortage of Omega 3 and 6 oils in the body, the human body compensates by producing more Omega 9 oils. This will over a period of time however be detrimental to your health. The correct ratio of Omega 3 to 6 oils will help to reduce the aches and pains of rheumatoid arthritis, combat free radical damage, reduce the symptoms of eczema and psoriasis, clear up acne and rosacea, relieve the discomforts of PMS, endometriosis, and fibrocystic breasts, improve digestion, regulate the liver, kidneys and endocrine system, improve the rate of tissue healing, increase muscle stamina, improve brain functioning, facilitate weight reduction, boost the immune system and prevent and improve diabetic neuropathy.
I myself was taking very large amounts of Omega 3, mainly in the form ALA, as well as Omega 6 in the form of GLA, and despite having a 1:1 ratio, found that his Omega 3 and 6 levels, especially 3, were dropping and not going up, and that the EFAs were simply not being absorbed effectively. This may be on account of the body's inability to convert ALA effectively when mitochondrial function is down, or it may be on account of the overly aggressive ratio. Probably a bit of both. When I changed the ratio to 1:4 and took mainly EPA instead of ALA, the Omega 3 levels normalised again. I therefore can only really recommend a ratio of 1:4 to other people, and preferably a DHA or EPA source of Omega 3.
Many oil supplements that contain Omega 3 and 6, or 3/6/9, tend to be biased towards a higher proportion of Omega 3, to compensate for the heavily tipped balance of Omega 6 to Omega 3 in most people's diets. However, if one eats well, and consumes reasonably significant amounts of EFA supplements, then one wants to ideally take a 1:4 ratio in my opinion. If the amount of DHA or EPA is very small, then taking such a supplement if usually fine, but if one is taking larger amounts e.g. pouring Udo's Choice oil (which has a 3 to 6 ratio of 2:1!), then it may result in excessive Omega 3 (ALA) levels and hence poorer absorption. Udo's Choice in my opinion is a great oil to use in copious amounts, if one is premixing it with organic Evening Primrose Oil, perhaps in a ratio of 1/3 Udo's to 2/3 EPO, which would give an optimal 1:4 Omega 3 to 6 ratio.
My practitioner, T Michael Culp, draws our attention to the fact that excessive consumption of ALA, from high flaxseed oil intake for example, has been shown to displace DHA and EPA from the cell membranes, which are far more important to membrane function. In addition, all Omega oils are long chain fatty acids (LCFAs) and require bile and enzyme outputs from the pancreas to digest. If one is supplementing oils high in omega fatty acids, then one shouldn't take too much, but may want to supplement medium chain fatty acids (MCTs) if one wants to gain weight or add calories as they do not require bile or enzymes to absorb. MCTs do not require the bile or enzymes to digest, and so do not strain the pancreas and gallbladder like LCTs do. Whilst Coconut oil is rich in MCTs, MCT oil is 100% MCTs and is an even better oil to use in my opinion than Coconut oil. The research that is often quoted to promote the use of Coconut oil is actually based on studies of MCT oil and not Coconut oil. MCT oil is also more antimicrobial, typically 55% Caprylic acid as opposed to 7% in Coconut oil. MCT is also more bland than Coconut oil and less warming than Coconut oil (possibly less hot and damp energy from a TCM perspective). It is generally used by bodybuilders as it is readily converted into energy and less converted straight into fat unlike LCTs of which generally a higher percentage is converted into fat. Some consider MCTs as more of a carbohydrate than a fat/oil.
back to top
Cholesterol
There are two main types of cholesterol, or more specifically, compounds made from cholesterol that we are concerned with here that are made from cholesterol and protein, low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). When most people talk of cholesterol levels, they really mean the lipoprotein levels rather than the actual cholesterol itself which is a building block or building material for the body.
LDL carries cholesterol from the liver to the rest of the body. When there is too much LDL cholesterol in the blood, it can be deposited on the walls of the coronary arteries. This is why LDL cholesterol is often referred to as 'bad' cholesterol. LDL is a wax-like substance.
HDL carries cholesterol from the blood back to the liver, which processes the cholesterol for elimination from the body. HDL decreases the likelihood that excess cholesterol in the blood will be deposited in the coronary arteries. It also helps to remove LDL plaque that has been desposited from the artery walls. This is why HDL cholesterol is often referred to as 'good' cholesterol.
Cholesterol plays a vital role in the body, and is involved in the formation of cell membranes, all hormones and vitamin D. Clearly the body requires both LDL and HDL but in the right proportions and at the right levels.
In general, 25% of the (LDL) cholesterol in our blood comes from our diet. LDL cholesterol is found solely in animal products (meat and dairy). The other 75% of our blood's cholesterol is manufactured in our liver. The biggest influence on blood cholesterol levels is the type and mix of fats in our diet. Studies have also shown that in most people tested, an increase in cholesterol intake does not necessarily equate to any elevated levels of blood cholesterol levels (e.g. eating a couple of eggs per week). Vegetable products do not contain any cholesterol. Dietary cholesterol comes only from animal products, including meat, fish, milk dairy and eggs. Most of the cholesterol in the body is manufactured from fats, and not obtained or elevated significantly from dietary sources. Eggs in particular have not been found to elevate serum LDL levels, perhaps (specutively) partly because they contain Lecithin which is a fat emulsifier, and which inhibits its absorption.
As a general rule, (long chain) saturated fats (mainly animal fats) raise blood cholesterol levels more than dietary cholesterol as they boost levels of HLD AND LDL. The overall effect of boosting both is however negative.
Trans fats (mainly hydrogenated vegetable oils) greatly increase the amount of LDL in our blood (and decrease the amount of HDL), much more than actual consumption of cholesterol itself, and excessive consumption is a major contributor to heart disease and the lining of atherosclerotic plaque in our arteries. Trans fats are much worse for cholesterol levels than saturated fats. They also cause inflammation - an overactivity of the immune system that has been implicated in heart disease, strokes, diabetes and other chronic conditions. Whilst 'bad' saturated fats should be limited, trans fats (hydrogenated vegetable oils) and rancid fats (e.g. vegetable oils used for frying and deep frying) should be eliminated as much as possible.
Mono-unsaturated (Omega 9 fatty acids) and poly-unsaturated fats (Omega 3 and 6 fatty acids) greatly increase the amount HDL in our blood (and decrease the amount of LDL), thereby actively removing the atherosclerotic plaque from our arteries.
In addition, Phosphatidyl Choline (from soya lecithin) helps to reduce LDL levels and increase HDL levels in our blood. Antioxidants also play an important part in removing atherosclerotic plaque from the arteries. They do this partly by reducing the LDL to HDL. They also inhibit some of the oxidative/free radical damage to the arteries thus preventing hardening. This is discussed on the Peroxynitrite page. Soluble fibre, e.g. oats, also helps to reduce cholesterol levels by reducing the amount of saturated fats that are absorbed through the digestive system (as they tend to stick to the fibre).
Garlic has also been shown to raise HDL levels in the blood.
Niacin (Vitamin B3) has lipid modifying effects. In very high doses, e.g. 1-2g three times a day, can increase HDL cholesterol levels and lower VLDL levels (the precursor to LDL cholesterol).
Studies show that cholesterol levels and atherosclerotic plaque do not tend to decrease in those with low total fat diets (low total fat), but stay the same. This is because of the lack of EFAs in low total fat diets.
Plant sterols are a fashionable supplement, found in products such as Benecol and Flora pro-activ, and act to limit the uptake of dietary cholesterol (that which is consumed). However, as stated above, studies show that 75% of blood cholesterol is generated in the liver from trans fats and long chain saturated fats, and only 25% derives directly from cholesterol in the diet. In addition, a moderate increase in intake of dietary cholesterol does not usually have a significant effect on cholesterol levels in the blood. Thus seeking to limit cholesterol uptake from one's diet, and specifically, the meal which the plant sterol product is taken together with, will have little or no effect on actually lowering cholesterol levels in the blood. Studies also show that unless we are consuming enough sources of 'good' fats and oils, i.e. monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, then simply taking a plant sterols product in conjunction with one's regular diet will do nothing to boost our good cholesterol levels or to remove atherosclerotic plaque from the arteries. If one consumes a plant sterols product in conjunction with a healthy diet containing enough 'good' fats and limited long chain saturated fats and transfats, then it is will probably be beneficial. However, it is not necessary, and is probably marketed to 'lazy people' to lull them into a false sense of security that they can simply continue their normal unhealthy diet (high in long chain saturated fats and trans fats) and by simply taking plant sterols, they will be 'ok'. Plant sterols are no substitute to consuming enough good fats and to avoiding bad fats. Consumers are often easily fooled by advertising claims and seek a lazy way of becoming healthy (and being 'safe' from heart disease) which does not require any work or discipline. Plant sterol drinks typically contain glucose and sucralose (an artificial sweetner) as well, which is not very healthy from a gut flora, endocrine or toxicity perspective, e.g. Flora pro-activ. If one is to drink such a small quantity, why does it need to be sweet and palatable? Presumably to increase sales. The logic behind plant sterol drinks is that one needs to buy them indefinitely to keep one's blood cholesterol levels slightly lower (assuming the consumer does not change his diet which is highly likely) and as such is a cash machine. Plant sterol drinks as much a cure for all evils as the commercial probiotic drinks which are examined on the Digestive page. An article about plant sterols can be found at the link below.
www.patient.co.uk/showdoc/40002453
The latest guidelines from the National Cholesterol Education Program recommend the following optimal levels for adults over 20 years of age:
* Total cholesterol less than 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dl)
* HDL cholesterol levels greater than 40 mg/dl
* LDL cholesterol levels less than 100 mg/dl
The total required daily fat intake for an adult male is 95g, as opposed to 70g for an adult female.
An excellent article on the Harvard University web site on cholesterol and the role of EFAs can be found at the link below.
www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/fats.html
As discussed above, consuming cholesterol does not automatically mean that one's blood cholesterol levels will increase. There are some arguments to suggest that eating foods high in cholesterol (not talking about saturated fats or trans fats but cholesterol itself) are actually good for you. A web site that promotes the idea of a high intake of dietary cholesterol being beneficial for health is listed below. Please note this is only discussing dietary cholesterol intake and not fatty acid types or LDL level.
www.cholesterol-and-health.com
An article which promotes a seemingly reverse trend, that high LDL levels are associated with a decreased risk of heart disease, is presented on the Weston A Price Foundation's web site at the link below. These arguments and research findings challenge the current view of LDL on the basis that those with high LDL levels show a higher mortality rate on account of their age and stressful lifestyles; and also on the basis that high cholesterol levels across different populations do not show the same trends with regards to heart disease. These are not widely accepted and may be regarded as somewhat contrarian in nature.
www.westonaprice.org/moderndiseases/benefits_cholest.html
The above article does not unfortunately relate the concept of high LDL levels to related areas. For example, how the people in the surveys actually achieved this high LDL levels; what their historical and current intake of different types of fatty acids was on average (i.e. monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, LCSFs, MCSFs, trans fats - relative quantities etc.); what their level of atherosclerotic plaque was like; what their cell membrane composition and health was like (easier to determine!) and what their brain tissue composition was like (hard to determine without killing everyone!); and lifestyle and other medical and psychological factors. The article does not really make it clear if all LDL is alike, or whether there are better and worse forms of LDL, depending on what precise fatty acids are used to make them up; or what the optimal ratio of HDL to LDL is - it seems to imply the more LDL the better. WAPF is not relying on its own research in this area however but on other parties' survey data and is adding an additional layer of interpretation. What is not in question with the Weston A Price Foundation's article is that monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats are essential for health; and that cholesterol, HDL and LDL perform necessary functions in the body, which is why the liver produces them. What is therefore in question is saturated fat and trans fat intake but this is not mentioned. These fats do not just affect LDL levels but have other effects on the body. The uninitiated could read the article and assume that trans fat consumption was therefore good for your health, which it clearly isn't. Such basic distinctions should have been included! Without knowing any more specific information about the survey, it is difficult to comment. However, the findings from the University of Harvard Medical School are from 2006 and are more up to date.
Grass fed organic animal products are higher in Omega 6 fatty acids than their factory farmed or organic soya bean/grain fed counterparts, and as such are much better for you, despite still containing LCFAs. The high CLA content may well be responsible for their saturated fat content not resulting in quite as much LDL deposition as would otherwise be expected (see Omega 6 section above).
It may be hard to obtain organic, grass-fed meat and dairy products in any case, so for the majority of the population who do not eat such products, it is probably best to greatly limit saturated fat intake from red meat and dairy sources and to eliminate trans fat intake as much as possible, whilst consuming some limited 'good' sources of plant source medium chain saturated fats (e.g. palm oil or coconut). Food packaging shows the nutritional data about a type of food or food product, including the fat content and the proportion of this fat content that saturates (i.e. which is saturated fat). As a general rule then, it is probably wise to avoid foods with high amounts of fat that saturates, and stick to those with low % saturated fats of total fat content (e.g. low fat or fat free organic bio live yoghurt, most vegetable or nut sources, avoid red meats, etc.), with the exception of 'good' saturated fats such as in coconut and coconut oil. The % trans fat of total fat content is not normally displayed on food packaging and this is something that you must normally determine by looking at the ingredients (for hydrogenated or partially hydrogenated vegetable oils), by looking at how the food is to be cooked and your own common sense.
Aaron is a big proponent of eating significant amounts of grass fed animal products for health. It is up to the reader to make up his own mind. I have spoken with two individuals who have embarked on such diets high in grass fed animal products, and test results show very high LDL levels. Whether these are considered to be healthy or not is open to debate.
back to top
Maintaining a good oil balance
Probably the ideal way to increase your Omega 3 and 6 levels are through consuming the foods that are rich in these oils (e.g. oily fish, fruit and vegetables, certain nuts or nut oils etc.), but in the right proportion to maintain the correct ratio. Try to carefully monitoring your food intake and its oil composition and type.
Some practitioners recommend alternating sources of Essential Fatty Acids, on a 4 day rotation, as part of a Phospholipid Therapy programme, e.g. taking 2 tablespoons of a given oil per day; and starting off with Flax Seed Oil on day 1; Evening Primrose Oil on day 2; Pure Organic Omega Oil (a mixture of various plant based Omega 3 and 6 oils) on day 3; and Hemp Seed Oil on day 4. This however would result in an average ratio somewhere in between 1:1 and 3:1, but a fluctuating daily intake ratio. Other practitioners simply recommend taking a daily intake ratio of 4:1 and taking the same mixture of oils every day. One may wish to perhaps combine the best of both worlds, and alternate sources of oil every day, but keeping the ratio 4:1 for optimum absorption.
It is probably best to ensure you consume sources of EPA or DHA for Omega 3 and GLA of Omega 6 as these are probably the best types of each Omega 3 fatty acid. Experimental studies have shown that 3-4g of ALA per day is equivalent to 0.3g of EPA per day.
For example, one may wish to take EPA and GLA supplements to ensure a certain daily level of these fatty acids, and also to use certain vegetable or nut oils or oil mixtures that contain a broad spectrum of types of Omega fatty acids, in the correct ratios. Supplements and ground flaxseed packets list the composition by weight of different fatty acids, so it is quite easy to calculate approximately the correct ratio of supplements to take each day, if you understand what the terms actually are (which are all defined above).
At the end of the day, if you consume more calories than you are expending each day, you will put on weight and build up internal and subcutaneous fat; even if you are eating mainly good fats. It is therefore sensible to try to achieve the recommended daily fat intake of 70g for adult women and 95g for adult men, but not much more than this. A high fat and oil intake is going to be harder work for the liver, but especially so if this intake is high in bad fats. It is clearly best to try to make up as much of one's daily fat intake as good fats as opposed to bad fats.
Personally, I recommend to take Om3 and 6 in a 1:4 ratio, even when supplementing (many people recommend just supplementing Om3, but this does not guarantee that one is consuming a high quality source of Om6). Some supplemental options are listed below:
- Taking a krill oil supplement (e.g. Neptune Krill Oil (NKO)) cod liver/fish oil supplement (e.g. Ezymatic Therapy's Eskimo-3, or Garden of Life's Oceans 2 Beyond Omega 3 (which contains additionally the antioxidants Astaxanthin and Fucoxanthin)). Krill oil is most commonly found in capsule form. Cod liver oil can be taken as capsules or more cheaply as a bottle of cod liver oil. An alternative to this is an EPA-only (i.e. DHA free) Omega 3 supplement (e.g. Ingenus' VegEPA). It is important to find a quality source that is very low in heavy metals.
- Evening Primrose or Starflower (Borage) Oil can be bought in bottled form, and is a useful source of Omega 6 fatty acids especially GLA. Can be poured onto food in conjunction with Cod Liver Oil/Linseed oil.
- Ground Chia Seed powder. Best if sprouted. The ground powder has the added benefit of adding fibre to your diet and helping your GI/bowel movements. If you are already taking ground psyllium husks to help with bowel movements/intestinal cleansing, you may want to consider using ground chia seed instead. Flaxseed is an alternative but does contain phytoestrogens known as lignans.
- Taking Chia oil (in preference to flaxseed/linseed oil - see above) - very rich in ALA, the plant-based type of Omega 3.
- Taking Hemp Seed Oil - which has an optimal ratio of Omega 3 to Omega 6, albeit being plant-based, it only contains Omega 3 in the form of ALA. It can be poured onto foods after cooking.
Below are some case studies of people who suffered from Depression, but after taking EFAs felt immediately much better. This includes Merrill Osmond.
www.drugawareness.org/Ribbon/Alternatives.html
www.vegepa.com/vegepa.php?n=WhynoDHAinVegEPA&indi=&ti=
Let us look at a few examples of EFA content of a few different supplements and calculating ratios. These supplements are examples and not necessarily being recommended. As we have discussed, most people have a general lack of Omega 3 in their diets compared to Omega 6 (e.g. little fish in one's diet). It is often recommended to have a total ratio of Omega 3 to Omega 6 of 1:4. Therefore if you are taking a relatively small amount of EFA supplements, then the actual Omega 3:6 ratio should be a little higher than this, so that the total intake ratio is around 1:4. However, if your blood is relatively low in EFAs, and you have problems absorbing them correctly, then your intake may need to be a little higher, in which case, if you are supplementing heavily with EFAs, then your ratio of Omega 3 to Omega 6 should probably be around 1:4 or thereabouts.
Igennus VegEPA
Each capsule contains:
560mg EPA (Omega 3)
200mg Evening Primrose Oil (EPO) - roughly equating to 160mg of Omega 6 fatty acids (GLA and LA)
Taking 1 capsule a day = 560mg Omega 3 and 160mg Omega 6.
Taking 3 capsules a day = 1.68g Omega 3 and 0.48g Omega 6.
Quest Evening Primrose 1000mg
Each capsule contains:
1000mg EPO = 820mg of GLA and LA (Omega 6)
Taking 1 capsule a day = 0.82g Omega 6
Taking 3 capsules a day = 2.46g Omega 6
Please be aware that EPO contains moderate amounts of Vitamin E.
Granovita Sprouted Ground Flaxseed
Each heaped plastic serving spoon contains 10g of ground flaxseed.
Flaxseed is made up of around 24% ALA (Omega 3) and 5% LA (Omega 6).
Therefore, one spoon contains 2.4g of Omega 3 and 0.5g of Omega 6.
[N.B. Sprouted Ground Flaxseed should not be refrigerated, but just kept sealed in a cool and dry place]
Nutrex Hawaian Spirulina powder
Each teaspoon is around 3g of Spirulina, containing 28mg or 0.028g of GLA (Omega 6). This amount is fairly negligible. Compared with the EFA contents of the other supplements listed above.
A daily intake of 3 x VegEPA capsules and 3 x Evening Primrose Capsules therefore provides a total intake of 1.68g Omega 3 and 2.94g Omega 6, giving a Omega 3 to 6 ratio of 1:1.75.
A daily intake of 1 x VegEPA capsule, 3 x Evening Primrose Capsules and 6 x BodyBio PC capsules therefore provides a total intake of 1.28g Omega 3 and 5.5g Omega 6, giving a Omega 3 to 6 ratio of 1:4.3.
We hope that these examples give you the general feel for calcuating your supplemental intake of Omega 3 and 6. Supplements always list the 3 and 6 content or at least the weight of each individual EFA. So once you know what each fatty acid is (defined above as to whether they are 3 or 6), the total can be easily calculated.
back to top
Phospholipid Deficiencies:
Phospholipid therapy is a nutritional therapy, a mitochondrial therapy, a neurological system therapy and also a detoxification therapy. In the latter application it helps to release partial detoxification products attached to the cell membranes. Please see the Detoxification Protocols page for information relating to dietary Phospholipid requirements and Phospholipid therapy in individuals with environmental illnesses, particularly those with high levels of free radical damage and oxidative stress. Tips on phospholipid supplementation can be found there, in addition to links to a number of technical articles and papers about Phospholipids, which are well worth a read.
back to top